The Second World War

Вторая мировая война
Clockwise, starting from the upper left corner - the Chinese troops in the Battle of Wanjiang, the Australian 25-pounder gun during the first battle at El Alamein, the German bombers Ju 87 (winter 1943-1944), the US naval forces in Lingayen Bay , The Philippines, Wilhelm Keitel signs the act of surrendering Germany, the Soviet troops in the battle for Stalingrad

The Second World War ( September 1, 1939 - September 2, 1945) - the war of two world military-political coalitions, which became the largest armed conflict in the history of mankind.

It was attended by 62 states out of 73 that existed at that time (80% of the world's population). The fighting took place on the territory of three continents and in the waters of the four oceans. This is the only conflict in which nuclear weapons were used.

& The Great Patriotic War 1941-1945

  • Date: September 1, 1939 - September 2, 1945
  • Location: Eurasia, Africa, World Ocean
  • Reason: The conditions of the Treaty of Versailles, which were heavy for Germany, of 1919; National socialist ideas and the policy of A. Hitler; Policies of other states; The consequences of the Versailles-Washington system; World economic crisis.
  • Result: The victory of the anti-Hitler coalition. Establishment of the UN. The prohibition and condemnation of the ideologies of fascism and Nazism. The USSR and the US become superpowers. Reducing the role of Britain and France in global politics. The split of the world into two camps; The Cold War begins. Decolonization of vast colonial empires.

World War II - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

Never Again! Red Poppy - Symbol of Victory Day in Ukraine "Never again" This year in Ukraine, at official events dedicated to the Victory Day, the European symbol of the memory of the fallen in the war will be used - the red poppy.

Opponents

The Anti-Hitler Coalition

Main participants:

the USSR Flag of the Soviet Union (1923-1955) .svg the USSR
And the state

(Since June 22, 1941)
USA US flag 48 stars.svg USA
And associated

(Since December 7, 1941)
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland The British Empire
(Since September 3, 1939)

Republic of China China
(Since July 7, 1937)
France France (1939-1940)
Poland Poland (1939)
Belgium Flag of Belgium (civil) .svg Belgium (1940)
Netherlands Flag of the Netherlands.svg The Netherlands (1940-1942)
Luxembourg Flag of Luxembourg.svg Luxembourg (1940)
Norway Flag of Norway.svg Norway (1940)
Yugoslavia Yugoslavia (1941)
Denmark Flag of Denmark.svg Denmark (1940)
Hellenic Kingdom Flag 1935.svg Greece (1940-1941)
Czechoslovakia Flag of the Czech Republic.svg Czechoslovakia
Brazil Flag of Brazil (1889-1960) .svg Brazil
Mexico Flag of Mexico (1934-1968) .svg Mexico
Ethiopia Ethiopia


Resistance movements
In the occupied
Territories:
Flag of Free France (1940-1944) .svg Fighting
France
Flag of the Democratic Federal Yugoslavia.svg People's Liberation Movement
Army of Yugoslavia [1]



The states that emerged from the Nazi bloc:
Romania Romania (1944-1945)
Bulgaria Bulgaria (1944-1945)
Italy Italy (1943-1945)
Finland Flag of Finland.svg Finland (1944-1945)
Iraq Iraq (1943-1945)


States that supported
Anti-Hitler Coalition:
Portugal Portugal [11]


Declared war on Germany,

Axis countries and their allies

Third Reich Germany
And the state

The Japanese Empire Japan
And the state

Italy Italy (1940-1943)
And the state

Hungary Hungary (1941-1944)
Finland Flag of Finland.svg Finland (1941-1944).
Romania Romania (1941-1944)
Bulgaria Bulgaria (1941-1944)
Thailand Flag of Thailand.svg Thailand (1942-1945)
Iraq Iraq (1941)


Collaborative military formations:
Naval Ensign of Russia.svg The Russian Liberation Army
Flag of the Ukrainian People's Republic (non-official, 1917) .svg The Ukrainian Liberation Army


Opponents of countries
Anti-Hitler Coalition,
Not included in the Axis:
France Vichy France [12]
State Flag of Iran (1933-1964) .svg Iran (1941) [13]
San marino Flag of San Marino.svg San Marino (1940-1943) [14]


States that supported the Axis:
Flag of Spain (1938 - 1945) .svg Spain [15]

Commanders

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics Joseph Stalin

United Kingdom Winston Churchill
USA Franklin Roosevelt †
Republic of China Chiang Kai-shek

Third Reich Adolf Gitler †

Japan Hirohito
Italy Benito
Mussolini †

The forces of the parties

Unknown Unknown

Losses

About 16,000,000 military, 30,000,000 civilians About 9,000,000 military and 8,000,000 civilians

The Second World War [16] (September 1, 1939 [17] - September 2, 1945 [18] ) - the war of the two world military-political coalitions, which became the largest armed conflict in the history of mankind. It was attended by 62 states out of 73 that existed at that time (80% of the world's population [19] ). The fighting took place on the territory of three continents and in the waters of the four oceans. This is the only conflict in which nuclear weapons were used.

Content

The participants

The number of participating countries changed during the war. Some of them conducted active military operations, others helped their allies supply food, and many participated in the war only nominally.

The anti-Hitler coalition included:

  • Poland, the British Empire (and its dominions: Canada, India, South African Union, Australia, New Zealand), France - entered the war in September 1939;
  • Ethiopia - Ethiopian troops under the command of the Ethiopian government in exile continued guerrilla warfare after the annexation of the state in 1936, officially recognized as an ally on July 12, 1940;
  • Denmark, Norway - on April 9, 1940;
  • Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg - since May 10, 1940;
  • Greece - October 28, 1940;
  • Yugoslavia on April 6, 1941;
  • USSR, Tuva, Mongolia - June 22, 1941;
  • The United States, the Philippines - since December 1941;
  • China (the government of Chiang Kai-shek) - was fighting against Japan since July 7, 1937, officially recognized as an ally on December 9, 1941;
  • Mexico - May 22, 1942;
  • Brazil - August 22, 1942 year.

The Axis countries also declared war on Panama, Costa Rica, the Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Haiti, Honduras, Nicaragua, Guatemala, Cuba, Nepal, Argentina, Chile, Peru, Colombia, Iran, Albania, Paraguay, Ecuador, Turkey, Uruguay, Venezuela, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, Liberia, Bolivia, but these countries did not take part in hostilities.

In the course of the war, several states that came out of the Nazi bloc joined the coalition:

  • Iraq on 17 January 1943;
  • The Kingdom of Italy - October 13, 1943;
  • Romania - on August 23, 1944;
  • Bulgaria - September 5, 1944;
  • Finland - September 19, 1944.

On the other hand, the Axis countries and their allies participated in the war:

  • Germany, Slovakia - September 1, 1939;
  • Italy, Albania - June 10, 1940;
  • Hungary - 11 April 1941;
  • Iraq - 1 May 1941;
  • Romania, Croatia, Finland - June 1941;
  • Japan, Manchukuo - on December 7, 1941;
  • Bulgaria - 13 December 1941;
  • Thailand - January 25, 1942;
  • China (Wang Jingwei's government) - January 9, 1943;
  • Burma - August 1, 1943;
  • The Philippines - September 1944.

Nor was he a member of the Nazi block of Iran (until 1941). In the territory of the occupied countries puppet states were created that were not participants in the Second World War and joined the fascist coalition: Vichy France, Greek State, Italian Social Republic, Hungary, Serbia, Montenegro, Macedonia, Pinda-Meglen Principality, Mengjiang, Burma, Philippines , Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos, Azad Hind, Wang Jingwei's regime. In a number of German Reich Commissariats autonomous puppet governments were created: the Quisling regime in Norway, the Mussert regime in the Netherlands, the Belarusian Central Rada in Belarus. On the side of Germany and Japan, too, a lot of collaborative forces, created from citizens of the opposing side, fought: ROA, foreign SS divisions (Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian, Estonian, 2 Latvian, Norwegian-Danish, 2 Dutch, 2 Belgian, 2 Bosnian, French, Albanian ), A number of foreign legions. Also in the armed forces of the countries of the Nazi bloc, volunteer forces of states formally remained neutral: Spain (Blue Division), Sweden and Portugal.

Who declared war To whom the war was declared date
Red flag, in the center of which is a white circle with a black swastika Germany Poland Poland September 1, 1939
Slovakia Slovakia Poland Poland September 1, 1939
Flag of the Great Britain United Kingdom Third Reich Germany September 3, 1939
France France Third Reich Germany September 3, 1939
Australia Australia Third Reich Germany September 3, 1939
New Zealand New Zealand Third Reich Germany September 3, 1939
Flag of British India British India Third Reich Germany September 3, 1939
Flag of SAC South African Union Third Reich Germany September 6, 1939
Flag of Canada (1921-1957) Canada Third Reich Germany September 10, 1939
Italy Italy United Kingdom Flag of the United Kingdom.svg United Kingdom June 10, 1940
Third Reich Germany Flag of the USSR the USSR June 22, 1941
Italy Italy Flag of the USSR the USSR June 22, 1941
Flag of Romania Romania Flag of the USSR the USSR June 22, 1941
Flag of Slovakia (1939-1945) Slovakia Flag of the USSR the USSR June 23, 1941
Finland Finland Flag of the USSR the USSR June 26, 1941.
Flag of Hungary (1919-1946) Hungary Flag of the USSR the USSR June 27, 1941
Flag of the USA (48 stars) USA Flag of Japan Japan December 8, 1941
United Kingdom Flag of the United Kingdom.svg United Kingdom Flag of Japan Japan December 8, 1941
Third Reich Germany Flag of the USA (48 stars) USA December 11, 1941
Italy Italy Flag of the USA (48 stars) USA December 11, 1941
Flag of the USSR the USSR Flag of Japan Japan August 8, 1945

Territories

All military operations can be divided into 5 theaters of military operations:

  • Western Europe: West Germany, Denmark, Norway, Belgium, Luxembourg, Netherlands, France, Great Britain (air bombardment), Atlantic.
  • Eastern Europe Theater: the USSR (western part), Poland, Finland, Northern Norway, Czechoslovakia, Romania, Hungary, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, Austria (eastern), East Germany, the Barents Sea, the Baltic Sea, the Black Sea.
  • Mediterranean theater: Yugoslavia, Greece, Albania, Italy, the Mediterranean islands (Malta, Cyprus, etc.), Egypt, Libya, French North Africa, Syria, Lebanon, Iraq, Iran, the Mediterranean Sea.
  • African Theater: Ethiopia, Italian Somalia, British Somalia, Kenya, Sudan, French West Africa, French Equatorial Africa, Madagascar.
  • Pacific theater: China (eastern and north-eastern part), Japan (Korea, South Sakhalin, Kuril Islands), USSR (Far East), Aleutian Islands, Mongolia, Hong Kong, French Indochina, Burma, Andaman Islands, Malaya, Singapore, Sarawak , The Dutch East Indies, Sabah, Brunei, New Guinea, Papua, Solomon Islands, Philippines, Hawaii, Guam, Wake, Midway, Marianas, Caroline Islands, Marshall Islands, Gilbert Islands, many small Pacific islands, Part of the Pacific Ocean, Indian Ocean.

Background of war

Background of the war in Europe

[De] . The coming war and the German chemical industry. - L .: Surf, 1928

The Treaty of Versailles severely limited Germany's capabilities in the military sphere. From Germany's point of view, the conditions dictated by Versailles were unfair legally and impracticable economically. Moreover, the amounts of reparations were not agreed in advance and doubled. All this created international tension and confidence that, no later than 20 years later, the world war will be resumed. [20]

In April-May 1922, the Genoa Conference was held in the northern Italian port town of Rapallo. Representatives of Soviet Russia were also invited: Georgii Chicherin (chairman), Leonid Krasin, Adolf Ioffe, and others. Germany (Weimar Republic) was represented by Walter Rathenau. The main theme of the conference was the mutual refusal to nominate claims for compensation for damage caused during the fighting in the First World War. The result of the conference was the conclusion of the Rapallo Treaty on April 16, 1922 between the RSFSR and the Weimar Republic. The treaty provided for the immediate restoration of the full diplomatic relations between the RSFSR and Germany. For Soviet Russia, this was the first international treaty in its history. For Germany, which was outlawed in the field of international politics to this day, this agreement was of fundamental importance, as it thereby began to return to the number of states recognized by the international community.

Shortly after the signing of the Treaty of Rapallo, on August 11, 1922, a secret cooperation agreement was concluded between the Reichswehr and the Red Army [21] . Germany and Soviet Russia had the opportunity, though insignificantly, to support and mutually develop the military-technical potential accumulated during the First World War [22][23] . As a result of the cooperation, the Red Army gained access to the technical achievements of the German military industry and the methods of operation of the German General Staff, and the Reichswehr was able to start training pilots, tankmen and chemical weapons specialists in three schools on the territory of the USSR, and, on the basis of subsidiaries of the German military industry, Officers with new models of weapons banned in Germany [24] .

July 27, 1928 in Paris signed the Pact Briand - Kellogg - an agreement to abandon the war as an instrument of national policy. The pact was to enter into force on July 24, 1929. On February 9, 1929, before the official entry into force of the pact, the so-called "Litvinov Protocol" was signed in Moscow - the Moscow protocol on the early imposition of the obligations of the Brian-Kellogg Pact between the USSR, Poland, Romania, Estonia and Latvia. April 1, 1929 he was joined by Turkey and on April 5 - Lithuania.

On July 25, 1932, the Soviet Union and Poland concluded a non-aggression pact.

With the advent of the National Socialist Workers Party headed by Adolf Hitler in 1933, Germany, without meeting any special objections from Britain and France, and in some places and with their support [25] , soon begins to ignore many of the limitations of the Treaty of Versailles - in In particular, it recovers the conscription into the army and rapidly increases the production of weapons and military equipment. October 14, 1933 Germany withdraws from the League of Nations and refuses to participate in the Geneva Conference on Disarmament. January 26, 1934 is the Treaty of Non-aggression between Germany and Poland. July 24, 1934 Germany is attempting to implement the Anschluss of Austria, having instigated an anti-government coup in Vienna, but is forced to abandon its plans because of the sharply negative position of the Italian dictator Benito Mussolini, who has nominated four divisions to the Austrian border.

In the 1930s, Italy pursued an equally aggressive foreign policy. October 3, 1935, she invaded Ethiopia and by May, 1936, seized it (see: Italian-Ethiopian War). In 1936 the Italian Empire was proclaimed. The Mediterranean Sea is declared "Our Sea" (Latin Mare Nostrum ). The act of unreasonable aggression causes discontent among the Western powers and the League of Nations. The deterioration of relations with the Western powers pushes Italy to rapprochement with Germany. In January 1936, Mussolini gives the principal consent to the annexation of the Germans by Austria, provided they refuse to expand on the Adriatic. March 7, 1936 German troops occupy the Rhine demilitarized zone. The United Kingdom and France do not offer this effective resistance, limiting themselves to a formal protest. November 25, 1936 Germany and Japan conclude the Anti-Comintern Pact on the joint struggle against communism. November 6, 1937, the pact is joined by Italy.

In March 1938, Germany unhamperedly annexed Austria (see Anschluss).

September 30, 1938 British Prime Minister Chamberlain and Hitler signed a declaration of non-aggression and the peaceful settlement of disputes between Britain and Germany - a treaty known in the USSR as the Munich conspiracy. In 1938, Chamberlain met three times with Hitler, and after a meeting in Munich returned home with his famous statement "I brought you peace!". In fact, this agreement, concluded without the participation of the leadership of Czechoslovakia, led to its partition by Germany, with the participation of Hungary and Poland. It is considered a classic example of appeasement of the aggressor (see Causes of the Second World War), which subsequently only prompted him to further expand his aggressive policy and became one of the reasons for the outbreak of World War II.

W. Churchill, October 3, 1938:

Britain was offered a choice between war and dishonor. She chose dishonor and will get war.

Minister of Foreign Affairs of the French Republic Georges Bonnet and German Foreign Minister Joachim Ribbentrop signed the Franco-German declaration on December 6, 1938.

In October 1938, as a result of the Munich agreement, Germany annexed the Sudetenland that belonged to Czechoslovakia. The consent to this act is given by England and France, and the opinion of Czechoslovakia itself is not taken into account. March 15, 1939 Germany in violation of the agreement occupies the Czech Republic. On the Czech territory, a German protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia is being created. Hungary and Poland participate in the division of Czechoslovakia: Slovakia (except for the predominantly Hungarian southern regions that went to Hungary) is declared an independent pro-Nazi state, Polish troops join the city of Cesky Teshin, and the self-proclaimed Carpathian Ukraine, previously partially captured by the Hungarian troops, after heavy fighting With the local militia (see Carpathian Sich), passes completely under the occupation of the troops of Admiral Horthy. February 24, 1939 to the Anti-Comintern Pact is joined by Hungary, March 27 - Spain, where Franco Franco came to power after the end of the civil war.

Until now, Germany's aggressive actions have not met with serious resistance from Britain and France, who are hesitant to start a war and are trying to save the Versailles Treaty system with reasonable concessions (from their point of view) (the so-called "appeasement policy"). However, after Hitler's violation of the Munich Treaty, in both countries the need for more stringent policies is increasingly becoming recognized, and in case of further aggression of Germany, Great Britain and France give military guarantees to Poland. After the seizure of Italy by Albania on April 7-12, 1939, Romania, Turkey and Greece receive the same guarantees.

According to MI Meltyukhov, objective conditions also made the Soviet Union an opponent of the Versailles system. Due to the internal crisis caused by the events of the First World War, the October Revolution and the Civil War, the level of the country's influence on European and world politics has significantly decreased. At the same time, the strengthening of the Soviet state and the results of industrialization stimulated the leadership of the USSR to take measures to restore the status of a world power. The Soviet government skillfully used official diplomatic channels, the illegal opportunities of the Comintern, social propaganda, pacifist ideas, anti-fascism, assistance to some victims of aggressors to create the image of the main fighter for peace and social progress. The struggle for "collective security" became Moscow's foreign policy tactics aimed at strengthening the weight of the USSR in international affairs and preventing the consolidation of other great powers without their participation. However, the Munich agreement clearly showed that the USSR is still far from becoming an equal subject of European politics [26] .

After the military alarm of 1927, the USSR actively began to prepare for war [27] . The possibility of an attack by a coalition of capitalist countries was replicated by official propaganda. The military, in order to have a trained mobilization reserve, began actively and everywhere to teach the urban population military specialties, training parachutism, aircraft modeling, etc. (see OSOAVIAHIM). It was honorable and prestigious to pass the standards of the TRP (ready for work and defense), to deserve for a well-aimed shooting the title and the icon "Voroshilovsky Shooter", and, along with the new title "ordenosnotsets", there appeared also the prestigious title "badge".

As a result of the Rapallo agreements reached and subsequent secret agreements, an aviation training center was established in Lipetsk in 1925, in which German instructors trained German and Soviet cadets. Under Kazan in 1929, a training center for commanders of tank formations (the secret training center "Kama") was established, in which German instructors also trained German and Soviet cadets. For the German side, 30 Reichswehr officers were trained during the functioning of the school [28][29] . In 1926-1933 in Kazan, also tested German tanks (the Germans for secrecy called them "tractors") [30] . A center was set up in Volsk for training in the handling of chemical weapons (the Tomka facility) [31][32] . In 1933, after Hitler came to power, all these schools were closed.

With the beginning of the 1930s, the "basic theory of a deep operation" became de facto the basic military concept in the Red Army. The main emphasis is on the creation and implementation of highly mobile mechanized parts. In accordance with the concept of theory, the role of shock force was assigned to mechanized corps. The main idea of ​​the theory consisted in striking the entire depth of the enemy's defense with the use of artillery, aviation, armored troops and airborne assault forces in order to defeat the entire operational grouping of the enemy. In the course of the deep operation, two goals were achieved: the breakthrough of the enemy's defense front by a simultaneous strike to its entire tactical depth and the immediate entry of a grouping of mobile troops to develop a tactical breakthrough into operational success. [33]

On January 11, 1939, the People's Commissariat of the Defense Industry was abolished, the People's Commissariat of Ammunition, the People's Commissariat of Armament, the People's Commissariat of the Shipbuilding Industry, and the People's Commissariat of the Aircraft Industry were created instead. All the people's commissariats produced only military products [34] .

In 1940, the USSR began to toughen the labor regime and increase the length of the working day for workers and employees. All state, cooperative and public enterprises and institutions were transferred from the six-day week to the seven-day week, counting the seventh day of the week-Sunday-the day of rest. The responsibility for absenteeism became tougher. Under penalty of imprisonment, dismissal and transfer to another organization were forbidden without the permission of the director (see "Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR of 26.06.1940").

In the army they hastily take to the arsenal and begin mass production of the new Yak-1 fighter, even without completing the state tests. 1940 is the year of mastering the production of the newest T-34 and KV tanks, the completion of the SVT rifle and the adoption of the PPSh submachine gun of the 1941 model.

During the political crisis of 1939 in Europe, there were two military-political blocs: Anglo-French and German-Italian, each of which was interested in an agreement with the USSR.

Poland, having concluded allied treaties with Great Britain and France, which were obliged to help it in the event of German aggression, refused to make concessions in negotiations with Germany (in particular, on the issue of the Polish corridor).

On August 15, the German ambassador to the USSR Schulenburg read Molotov a message from German Foreign Minister Ribbentrop, in which he expressed his readiness to personally come to Moscow to "clarify German-Russian relations." On the same day, the directives of the USSR NKO No. 4/2 / 48601-4 / 2/486011 on the deployment of an additional 56 divisions to the already existing 96 rifle divisions are sent to the Red Army.

On August 19, 1939, Molotov agreed to accept Ribbentrop in Moscow for signing an agreement with Germany, and on August 23 the USSR signed the Non-Aggression Treaty. The secret additional protocol provided for the division of spheres of interest in Eastern Europe, including the Baltic states and Poland.

Background of the war in Asia

Japan's occupation of Manchuria and northern China began in 1931. July 7, 1937 Japan begins an offensive deep into China (see Japan-China War). Slightly stalled, however, Japan's expansion in East Asia, internal conflicts - both problems associated with accelerated economic development (for example, deformation of the structure of the economy), and conflicts in military and financial elites divided in opinions about the direction of expansion. It is characteristic that pacifism of support at that time in Japan had practically no effect.

The expansion of Japan met an active opposition of the great powers. The United Kingdom, the United States and the Netherlands imposed economic sanctions against Japan. The USSR also did not remain indifferent to the events in the Far East, especially since the Soviet-Japanese border conflicts of 1938-1939 (the most famous of which were fighting near Lake Khasan and the undeclared war at Khalkhin-Gol) threatened to turn into a full-scale war.

After all, Japan faced a serious choice in which direction to continue its further expansion: northward against the USSR or south against China and European and American colonies in Asia. The choice was made in favor of the "southern option". April 13, 1941 in Moscow, an agreement was signed between Japan and the USSR on neutrality for a period of 5 years. Japan began preparations for war against the US allies in the Pacific (the United Kingdom, the Netherlands).

December 7, 1941 Japan strikes at the US naval base Pearl Harbor. Since December 1941, the Japan-China War is considered part of the Second World War.

The first period of the war (September 1939 - June 1941)

Soviet-German relations (autumn 1939)

Invasion of Poland

Polish soldiers during the fighting for Poland. September 1939

May 23, 1939 in the office of Hitler in the presence of a number of senior officers held a meeting. It was noted that "the Polish problem is closely connected with the inevitable conflict with England and France, a quick victory over which is problematic. At the same time, Poland is unlikely to play the role of a barrier against Bolshevism. At present, Germany's foreign policy objective is to expand the living space to the East, ensure a guaranteed supply of food and eliminate threats from the East. Poland must be captured at the first opportunity. "

On August 23, a non-aggression pact between Germany and the Soviet Union was signed between Germany and the USSR, in which the parties agreed on non-aggression against one another (including in case of the start of hostilities by one of the sides against third countries, which was the usual practice of the German That time). In a secret supplementary protocol to the treaty of the USSR and Germany, the division of spheres of interest in Europe was fixed.

On August 31 the German press reported: "... on Thursday at about 20 o'clock the radio station in Gleiwitz was captured by the Poles." In fact, they were dressed in Polish uniforms SS led by Alfred Naujoksom [35] .

On September 1, 1939, the troops of Germany and Slovakia invade Poland, this provokes the declaration of war against England, France and other countries that had an alliance with Poland.

On September 1, at 4:45 am, the German training ship, the obsolete armored carrier Schleswig-Holstein, who arrived in Danzig with a friendly and enthusiastic welcome by the local population, opens fire on the Polish fortifications on Westerplatte. The German Armed Forces invade Poland. In the fighting on the side of Germany, the troops of Slovakia are taking part.

On September 1, Hitler is in the military uniform in the Reichstag. To justify the attack on Poland, Hitler refers to the incident in Gliwice. However, he carefully avoids the term "war", fearing the entry into conflict of England and France, which gave Poland the appropriate guarantees. The order issued by him spoke only of "active defense" against Polish aggression.

Mussolini suggested convening a conference for a peaceful resolution of the Polish question, which was met with support from the Western powers, but Hitler declined, saying that it was unwise to represent what he had won as weapons received by the diplomacy [36] .

On September 1, the Soviet Union introduced universal military service. At the same time, the draft age is lowered from 21 to 19 years, and for some categories - to 18 years. The law immediately came into force, and in a short time the strength of the army reached 5 million people, which amounted to about 3% of the population.

September 3 at 9 o'clock in England, at 12:20 France, as well as Australia and New Zealand declared war on Germany. Within a few days, they are joined by Canada, Newfoundland, the Union of South Africa and Nepal. The Second World War began [37] . Hitler and his entourage to the last day hoped that the Allies would not dare to enter the war and the matter would end with the second Munich. The main interpreter of the German Foreign Ministry, Paul Schmidt, describes the state of shock that Hitler came when British Ambassador Neville Henderson, having appeared in the Reich Chancellery at 9 am on September 3, handed over his government's ultimatum demanding to withdraw troops from Polish territory to their original positions. Only when present, Goering could say: "If we lose this war, we can only hope for the mercy of God" [38] .

German soldiers and representatives of the propaganda ministry inspect the bodies of the victims as a result of the Bromberg pogrom

September 3 in Bydgoszcz (formerly Bromberg), the city of the Pomeranian Voivodeship (the former West Prussia), which passed under the Treaty of Versailles to Poland, there was a massacre on a national basis - the Bromberg pogrom. In a city whose population was 3/4 made up of Germans, several hundred civilians of German descent were killed. Their number varied from one to three hundred deaths - according to the version of the Polish side [39] and from one to five thousand according to the version of the book published in the German right-wing extremist publishing house DSZ [40] .

The offensive of the German troops developed according to plan. The Polish troops as a whole turned out to be a weak military force in comparison with the coordinated German tank formations and the Luftwaffe. At the same time, on the Western Front, the allied Anglo-French troops do not take any active action (see Strange War). Only at sea the war began immediately, and also by Germany: on September 3, the German submarine U-30 attacks without warning the English passenger liner Atenia.

On September 5, the United States and Japan announce their neutrality in the European war [41] .

On September 7, German forces under the command of Heinz Guderian begin an attack on the Polish defensive line near Vizno. 720 Polish soldiers and officers held back the 40,000-strong grouping of the enemy until September 10.

In Poland, during the first week of the fighting, German troops in several places cut the Polish front and occupy part of Mazovia, West Prussia, Upper Silesian industrial region and Western Galicia. By September 9, the Germans have succeeded in breaking the Polish resistance along the entire front line and approaching Warsaw.

On September 10, the Polish Commander-in-Chief Edward Rydz-Smigly gives the order for a general retreat to Southeast Poland, but the bulk of his troops, unable to retreat beyond the Vistula, are surrounded. By mid-September, without receiving support from the west, the armed forces of Poland cease to exist as a whole; Only local resistance centers remain.

September 14, the 19th Corps Guderian throwing from East Prussia captures Brest. Polish troops under the command of General Plisovsky still for several days defend the Brest Fortress. On the night of September 17, her defenders in an organized order leave the forts and retreat for the Bug.

On September 16, the Polish Ambassador to the USSR was told that since the Polish state and its government ceased to exist, the Soviet Union takes under its protection the life and property of the population of Western Ukraine and Western Belorussia.

On September 17, fearing that Germany would refuse to comply with the terms of the secret additional protocol to the non-aggression pact, the USSR began to deploy troops to the eastern regions of Poland [42] . Internal propaganda declares that "the Red Army takes the fraternal peoples under protection." On September 17 at 6 o'clock in the morning the Soviet troops by two military groups cross the state border. On the same day, Molotov sends a congratulatory message to Germany's Ambassador to the USSR Schulenburg on the "brilliant success of the German Wehrmacht" [43] . Despite the fact that neither the USSR nor Poland declared war on each other, some historians (for example Nekrich AM) consider this day the date of the USSR's accession to World War II.

In the evening of September 17, the Polish government and the supreme command fled to Romania.

September 28, the Germans occupy Warsaw. On the same day, the Treaty of Friendship and the Border between the USSR and Germany was signed in Moscow, establishing a line of demarcation between German and Soviet troops in the territory of the former Poland along the Curzon Line.

On October 6, the last units of the Polish army capitulate.

Part of the western Polish lands becomes part of the Third Reich. These lands are subject to the so-called "Germanization". The Polish and Jewish populations are deported from here to the central regions of Poland, where the governor-general is being created. Mass repressions against the Polish people are being carried out. The situation of the Jews, driven into the ghetto, becomes the most difficult.

Territories that have moved into the zone of influence of the USSR are included in the Ukrainian SSR, Byelorussian SSR and Lithuania, which was independent at that time. In the territories included in the USSR, Soviet power is established, socialist reforms are being carried out (nationalization of industry, collectivization of the peasantry), which is accompanied by deportations and repressions against former ruling classes-representatives of the bourgeoisie, landlords, rich peasants, part of the intelligentsia.

October 6, 1939, after the end of all military operations, Hitler is proposing the convening of a peace conference with the participation of all major powers to resolve the existing contradictions. France and the United Kingdom declare that they will agree to the conference only if the Germans immediately withdraw their troops from Poland and the Czech Republic and return these countries to independence. Germany rejects these conditions, and as a result, the peace conference never took place.

The Battle for the Atlantic

Fire on the pocket battleship " Admiral Graf Spee " when it is flooded in the estuary of La Plata

Despite the rejection of the peace conference, Britain and France from September 1939 to April 1940 continue to wage a passive war and do not attempt any offensive. Active military operations are conducted only on sea communications. Even before the war, the German command sent 2 battleships and 18 submarines to the Atlantic Ocean, which with the opening of hostilities began attacks on merchant ships of Great Britain and its allied countries. From September to December 1939, Britain lost 114 ships from the German submarine strikes, and in 1940 471 ships, while in 1939 the Germans lost only 9 submarines. The attacks on maritime communications in the UK led to the loss by the summer of 1941 of 1/3 of the tonnage of the British merchant fleet and created a serious threat to the country's economy.

Soviet-Finnish War

Territorial acquisitions of the USSR

During the Soviet-Finnish talks of 1938-1939, the USSR is trying to obtain concessions from Finland from the Karelian Isthmus (the transfer of these territories tore the Mannerheim Line at the most important, Vyborg direction), as well as the lease of several islands and parts of the Hanko Peninsula (Gangut) Under military bases, offering in exchange territory in Karelia with a total area twice as much as the Finnish one [44] . Finland, unwilling to make concessions and assume military obligations, insists on concluding a trade agreement and consent to the remoralization of the Aland Islands.

Three months before the incident in Maynil, Finnish Prime Minister Kayander at a review of the Finnish reservists states:

We are proud that we have few weapons rusting in arsenals, few military uniforms, rotting and moldy in warehouses. But we in Finland have a high standard of living and an education system that we can be proud of [45] .

In turn, Joseph Stalin several months before the war in Moscow, said:

We can do nothing with geography, just like you ... Since you can not move Leningrad, you will have to push the border away from it [46] .

November 30, 1939, the USSR invades Finland. On December 14, for the unleashing of the war, the USSR was expelled from the League of Nations. When the Soviet Union was expelled from the League of Nations, of its 52 states that were members of the League, 12 representatives were not sent to the conference at all, and 11 did not vote for an exception. And among these 11 - Sweden, Norway and Denmark.

From December to February, Soviet troops in the 15 Soviet infantry divisions have made many attempts to break through the Mannerheim Line, defended by 15 infantry divisions of the Finns, but they do not achieve much success. The failure at Suomussalmi ends the attempt to cut the territory of Finland and go to Oulu [45] .

In the future there was a continuous build-up of the forces of the Red Army in all directions.

The United Kingdom and France decide to prepare an assault on the Scandinavian Peninsula in order to prevent Germany from seizing Swedish iron ore deposits and at the same time to provide the way for the future transfer of its troops to Finland's aid; Also begins the transfer of long-range bomber aircraft to the Middle East for the bombing and seizure of Baku's oil fields in the event of England's entry into the war on the side of Finland. However, Sweden and Norway, in an attempt to maintain neutrality, categorically refuse to accept Anglo-French troops on their territory. On February 16, 1940, British destroyers attacked the German Altmark ship in Norwegian territorial waters and released British seamen on board from the prize ships. On March 1, Hitler, who had previously been interested in maintaining the neutrality of the Scandinavian countries, signed the directive on Operation Vezeryubung: the capture of Denmark (as a trans-shipment base) and Norway to prevent a possible landing of the Allies.

In early March 1940, Soviet troops break through the Mannerheim Line and capture 3/4 Vyborg. On March 13, 1940, a peace treaty was signed in Moscow between Finland and the USSR, according to which Soviet requirements were met: the border on the Karelian Isthmus in the Leningrad region was moved to the northwest from 32 to 150 km, a number of islands in the Gulf of Finland left the USSR [47] .

Despite the end of the war, the Anglo-French command continues to develop a plan for a military operation in Norway, but the Germans manage to get ahead of them.

European Blitzkrieg

Sea battle near the Norwegian coast. 10 April 1940

April 9, 1940 Germany invades Denmark and Norway.

In Denmark, Germans by sea and airborne forces unimpeded occupy all the most important cities and in a few hours destroy Danish aviation. Under the threat of bombing civilians, the Danish King Christian X is forced to sign a capitulation and orders the army to lay down their arms.

In Norway, the Germans seize the main Norwegian ports of Oslo, Trondheim, Bergen, Narvik on April 9-10. On April 14, the Anglo-French landing was disembarked at Narvik, on April 16 - in Namsus, on April 17 - in Ondalesnes. On April 19, the Allies launched an offensive on Trondheim, but they fail and in the beginning of May are forced to withdraw their forces from Central Norway. After a series of battles for Narvik, the Allies in the beginning of June are also evacuated from the northern part of the country. June 10, 1940 capitulate the last part of the Norwegian army. Norway is under the control of the German occupation administration (Reichskommissariat); Denmark, as declared by the German protectorate, was able to maintain partial independence in internal affairs.

After the occupation of Denmark, British and American troops, in order to prevent Germany's invasion of the Danish non-continental possessions, occupied its overseas territories of strategic importance - the Faroe Islands, Iceland and Greenland (see The Faroe Islands in World War II, Invasion of Iceland (1940) ), Greenland during the Second World War (English) ).

Center Rotterdam after the German bombing

On May 10, 1940, Germany invaded Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg with 135 divisions. The 1st group of allied armies advances to the territory of Belgium, but does not have time to help the Dutch, as the German Army Group "B" carries out a swift throw to South Holland and on May 12 captures Rotterdam. On May 14, Rotterdam is subjected to massive bombardment, which leads to huge destruction and casualties among civilians. After the threat of similar bombing of Amsterdam and The Hague on May 15, the Dutch government capitulates.

In Belgium, German paratroopers seize bridges on May 10th through the Alberta Canal, which enables large German tank forces to force it to the allies' approach and to reach the Belgian plain. May 17, Brussels fell.

But the main blow is inflicted by Army Group "A". Having occupied Luxembourg on May 10, three Guderian armored divisions cross the Southern Ardennes and cross the Meas River west of Sedan on May 14. At the same time, the Goth's tank corps breaks through the Northern Ardennes, which are difficult for heavy equipment, and on May 13 it forces the Maas River north of Dinan. German tank armada rushes to the west. Belated attacks by the French, for whom the blow of the Germans through the Ardennes is a complete surprise, can not contain it. On May 16, parts of Guderian reach Oise; May 20, they go to the coast of the Pas-de-Calais near Abbeville and turn to the north, to the rear of the allied armies. 28 Anglo-French-Belgian divisions are surrounded.

An attempt by the Allied Command to organize a May 21-23 counterattack from Arras could be successful, but Guderian stops the tank batten almost completely destroyed. On May 22 Guderian cuts off the path of the retreat to Boulogne for the Allies, May 23 - for Calais and goes to Gravlin 10 km from Dunkirk, the last port through which the Anglo-French troops could be evacuated, but on May 24 he is forced to stop the offensive for two days on personal order Hitler ("Miracle under Dunkirk") (according to another version, the reason for the stop was not Hitler's order, but the entry of tanks into the zone of the British artillery fleet's operational artillery, which could shoot them practically with impunity). The respite allows the allies to strengthen the defense of Dunkirk and begin Operation Dynamo to evacuate their forces by sea. On May 26, German troops break through the Belgian front in West Flanders, and on May 28 Belgium, in defiance of the Allied demands, capitulates. On the same day, in the district of Lille, the Germans surround a large French grouping, which surrenders on May 31. Part of the French troops and almost the whole of the British army (224 thousand) were transported by British ships through Dunkirk. The Germans seize all British and French artillery and armored vehicles, vehicles abandoned by the Allies in retreat. After Dunkirk, Britain was practically unarmed, although it retained the personnel of the army.

On June 5, the German troops launched an offensive on the Lan-Abwil sector. Attempts by the French command to hastily repair the gap in the defense of unprepared divisions are unsuccessful. The French lose one battle after another. The defense of the French is breaking up, and the command hastily withdraws troops to the south.

June 10, Italy declares war on Britain and France. Italian troops are invading southern France, but they can not go far. On the same day, the French government is evacuated from Paris. On June 11, the Germans crossed the Marne at Chateau-Thierry. June 14, they enter Paris without a fight, and two days later they leave for the Rhone valley. On June 16, Marshal Petain forms the new government of France, which already on the night of June 17 appeals to Germany for a truce. On June 18, French General Charles De Gaulle, who fled to London, calls on the French to continue their resistance. On June 21, the Germans, without encountering practically no resistance, reach the Loire on the Nantes-Tour section, the same day their tanks are occupied by Lyon.

On June 22, in Compiègne, in the same car in which German surrender was signed in 1918, a Franco-German armistice was signed, according to which France agrees to occupy most of its territory, the demobilization of almost the entire land army and the internment of the navy and aviation. In the free zone, as a result of the coup d'état, on July 10, Peten's authoritarian regime (the Vichy regime) is established, and has embarked on a close cooperation with Germany (collaborationism). Despite the military power of France, the defeat of this country was so sudden and complete that it could not be explained rationally.

Commander-in-Chief of the Vishite troops Francois Darlan gives the order to withdraw the entire French fleet to the shores of French North Africa. Because of the fear that the entire French fleet could fall under the control of Germany and Italy, on July 3, 1940, the British naval forces and aviation within Operation Catapult strike the French ships at Mers-el-Kebir. By the end of July, the British destroyed or neutralized almost the entire French fleet.

Accession of the Baltic States, Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina to the USSR

Soviet troops enter Riga. 17 June 1940

In the fall of 1939, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania signed mutual assistance agreements with the USSR, also known as base agreements, according to which Soviet military bases were deployed on the territory of these countries. June 17, 1940, the USSR presents an ultimatum to the Baltic states, demanding the resignation of governments, the formation of popular governments, the dissolution of parliaments, the holding of early elections and the consent to the introduction of an additional contingent of Soviet troops. In the current situation, the Baltic governments were forced to accept these demands. With active support from Moscow in Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, coups are simultaneously taking place. Governments that are friendly to the Communists come to power.

After the introduction of additional units of the Red Army into the Baltic territory, in mid-July 1940 in Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, in conditions of a significant Soviet military presence, there are no alternative elections to the supreme authorities. Communist parties were the only parties allowed to vote. In their pre-election programs, they did not mention a word about plans to join the USSR [48] . On July 21, 1940, the newly elected parliaments, which included a pro-Soviet majority [48] , proclaim the creation of Soviet socialist republics and send petitions to the Supreme Soviet of the USSR to join the Soviet Union. On August 3, the Lithuanian SSR, August 5 - the Latvian SSR, and on August 6 - the Estonian SSR were admitted to the USSR.

On June 27, 1940, the government of the USSR sent two ultimatum notes to the Romanian government, demanding the return of Bessarabia and the transfer of the Northern Bukovina to the USSR as "compensation for the enormous damage inflicted on the Soviet Union and the population of Bessarabia by Romania's 22-year rule in Bessarabia." Bessarabia was annexed to the Russian Empire in 1812 after the victory over Turkey in the Russo-Turkish War of 1806-1812; In 1918, taking advantage of the Civil War in the territory of the former Russian Empire, Romania introduced troops to the territory of Bessarabia, and then included it in its composition. Bukovina was never part of the Russian Empire (historically, almost the entire Bukovina, except for its southern part, belonged to Russia in the X-XI centuries), but was inhabited mainly by Ukrainians. Romania, not counting on the support of other states in the event of war with the USSR, was forced to agree to meet these requirements. On June 28, Romania withdraws its troops and administration from Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina, after which Soviet troops are introduced there. On August 2, the Moldavian SSR was formed on the part of the territory of Bessarabia and part of the territory of the former Moldavian ASSR. The south of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina are organizationally included in the Ukrainian SSR.

The Battle of Britain

After the surrender of France, Germany offers the UK to make peace, but is refused. July 16, 1940, Hitler issued a directive on the invasion of Britain (operation "Sea Lion"). However, the command of the German Navy and the ground forces, referring to the power of the British fleet and the lack of experience of the Wehrmacht's landing operations, requires the Air Force to first ensure air supremacy. Since August, the Germans have begun bombing Britain in order to undermine its military and economic potential, demoralize the population, prepare an invasion and ultimately force it to surrender. The German Air Force and the Navy are systematically attacking British ships and convoys in the English Channel. Since September 4, German aviation has embarked on a massive bombing of English cities in the south of the country: London, Rochester, Birmingham, Manchester.

Despite the fact that the British suffered heavy losses in the course of the bombings among civilians, they, in fact, manage to win the battle for Britain - Germany is forced to abandon the airborne operation. Since December, the activity of the German Air Force has been significantly reduced due to worsening weather conditions. To achieve its main goal - to withdraw Great Britain from the war - the Germans did not succeed.

Battles in Africa, the Mediterranean and the Balkans

After Italy's entry into the war, Italian troops begin fighting for control of the Mediterranean, North and East Africa. On June 11, Italian aviation strikes at the British naval base in Malta. On June 13, the Italians bombard British bases in Kenya. In early July, Italian troops invade from Ethiopia and Somalia to the British colonies of Kenya and Sudan, but due to hesitant actions they can not go far. On August 3, 1940, Italian troops invade British Somalia. Using numerical superiority, they manage to force the British and South African troops across the strait into the British colony of Aden.

After the capitulation of France, the administrations of some French colonies refused to recognize the Vichy government. In London, General de Gaulle formed the "Fighting France" movement, which did not recognize shameful surrender. The British armed forces, together with the detachments of the "Fighting France", begin their struggle against the Vichy troops for control of the colonies. By September, they managed to peacefully establish control over virtually all of Equatorial Africa in France. October 27 in Brazzaville formed the supreme governing body of the French territories occupied by the troops of De Gaulle, - the Defense Council of the Empire. On September 24, British troops and parts of the "Fighting France" are defeated by the Vichy troops in Senegal (the Dakar operation). However, in November they manage to seize Gabon (Gabon operation).

Italian artillery shelling Greek positions

On September 13, the Italians invade Libya in British Egypt. After occupying Sidi Barrani on September 16, the Italians stop, and the English depart to Mersa Matruh. To improve their position in Africa and the Mediterranean, the Italians decide to seize Greece. After the refusal of the Greek government to allow the Italian troops to enter its territory on October 28, 1940, Italy begins an offensive. Italians manage to capture part of the Greek territory, but by November 8 they are stopped, and on November 14 the Greek army passes into a counteroffensive, completely liberates the country's territory and enters Albania.

Australian soldiers in North Africa. January 21, 1941

In November 1940, British aviation strikes at the Italian fleet in Taranto, which makes it extremely difficult for sea freight for Italian troops to North Africa. Taking advantage of this, on December 9, 1940, British troops launched an offensive in Egypt; in January they occupy the whole of Cyrenaica and by February 1941 they leave for the area of ​​El-Ageyla.

In early January, the British are also undertaking an offensive in East Africa. Having beaten Kassala on January 21, they invade Sudan in Eritrea, capture Karen (March 27), Asmara (April 1) and the port of Massawa (April 8). In February, British troops from Kenya penetrate Italian Somalia; On 25 February, they occupy the port of Mogadishu, and then turn north and enter Ethiopia. On March 16, the British landing forces landed in British Somalia and soon defeated the Italians there. Together with the British troops, Emperor Haile Selassie, deposed by the Italians in 1936, arrives in Ethiopia. Numerous groups of Ethiopian partisans join the British. March 17, British and Ethiopian troops occupy Jijig, March 29 - Harar, April 6 - the capital of Ethiopia Addis Ababa. The Italian colonial empire in East Africa ceases to exist. The remnants of the Italian troops continue to resist in the territories of Ethiopia and Somalia until November 27, 1941.

In March 1941, in a naval battle near the island of Crete, the British inflict another defeat on the Italian fleet. On March 2, British and Australian troops start landing in Greece. March 9, the Italian troops are undertaking a new offensive against the Greeks, but during the six-day fierce battles they are completely defeated and by March 26 are forced to retreat to their original positions.

After suffering a complete defeat on all fronts, Mussolini is forced to ask for help from Hitler. In February 1941, a German expeditionary corps arrived in Libya under the command of General Rommel. On March 31, 1941, the Italo-German troops launched an offensive, defeated the Cyrenaica from the British and reached the borders of Egypt, after which the front in North Africa was stabilized until November 1941.

Changes in the composition of the fighting coalitions

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Gradually, the US government begins to review its foreign policy course. It is increasingly supporting Britain, becoming its "non-belligerent ally" (see Atlantic Charter). In May 1940, the US Congress approved an amount of $ 3 billion for the needs of the army and navy, and in the summer - $ 6.5 billion, including $ 4 billion for the construction of a "fleet of two oceans." The supply of weapons and equipment for the UK is increasing. September 2, 1940, the United States sends the UK 50 destroyers in exchange for the rental of 8 military bases in the British colonies in the Western Hemisphere. According to the law passed by the US Congress on March 11, 1941, the transfer of military materials to the belligerent countries on loan or lease (see Lend-Lease), Britain allocated 7 billion dollars. Later, Lend-Lease extends to China, Greece and Yugoslavia. North Atlantic declared a "patrol zone" of the US Navy, which simultaneously begins to escort the merchant ships heading to the UK.

In the talks on October 12 and 13, 1940, German diplomats suggest that the USSR accede to the "Axis Pact" in the hope that the Union will take part in the creation of a powerful "Continental Bloc" (German Gewaltigen Kontinentalblock ) and will consider India and Iran its area of ​​interest and control in Asia , Which ultimately leads to the surrender of England and its allies.

Before the talks the German General Staff had drawn up on July 13 a plan of military operations against the USSR. Then it became clear to Hitler that Britain was seriously counting on the help of the USSR. Also, until November 12, Hitler signed an order (German Weisung Nr.18 ), according to which all previous verbal orders to prepare for war should be fulfilled regardless of the results of the negotiations [49] .

At the talks in Berlin on November 12, Molotov stressed that at that time the Soviet Union had little interest in manifesting activity in Asia and did not object to joining the "Axis Pact" as a partner [the source was not specified in 1743 days ] , but not an instrument for the exercise by the powers of the axis of their private interests . At the same time he is interested in, first of all, the annexation of Finland and the then owned Romania of South Bukovina. In addition, he demanded Germany's consent to the dissolution of the Vienna agreement of 30 August 1940, which gave Romania certain guarantees, and confirmed the interests in Bulgaria and demanded the consent for the long-term presence of Soviet troops in the straits of the Bosporus and the Dardanelles.

In addition to these specific requirements, it was suggested that Romania, Bulgaria, Greece and Yugoslavia are areas of state interests of the Soviet Union. Hitler categorically did not like it, and the negotiations ended on November 14 with nothing, and in a "cold atmosphere".

On November 25, Stalin relaxed the demands, pointing out that the condition for the USSR's accession to the pact was the agreement to declare Finland and Bulgaria the zone of interests of the USSR, as well as the right to establish strong points in Turkey. But the German side did not respond at all.

After that, Hitler approves a plan of attack on the USSR. For these purposes, Germany is beginning to seek allies in Eastern Europe. November 20, Hungary joins the Triple Alliance, November 23 - Romania, November 24 - Slovakia, in 1941 - Bulgaria, Finland and Spain. On 25 March 1941 Yugoslavia joins the pact, however on March 27 a military coup takes place in Belgrade, and Simovic's government comes to power, which proclaims the king of young Peter II and proclaims neutrality of Yugoslavia. On April 5, Yugoslavia enters into an agreement with the USSR on friendship and non-aggression. In view of the unfavorable developments for Germany, Hitler decides to conduct a military operation against Yugoslavia and help the Italian troops in Greece.

Battles in the Balkans and the Middle East

The states of the Balkan Peninsula (1942)
Belgrade after the bombing

[En] . April 10, the Germans seize Zagreb. On April 11, the leader of the Croatian Nazis Ante Pavelic proclaims Croatia's independence and calls on Croats to leave the Yugoslav army, which further undermines her fighting ability. On April 13, the Germans seize Belgrade. On April 15, the Yugoslav government fled the country. On April 16, the German troops enter Sarajevo. April 16 Italians occupy the Bar and the island of Krk, and April 17 - Dubrovnik. On the same day, the Yugoslav army surrenders, and 344,000 of its soldiers and officers are taken prisoner.

After the defeat of Yugoslavia, the Germans and Italians throw all their forces into Greece. On April 20, the Epirus army capitulates. An attempt by the Anglo-Australian command to set up a defensive line at Thermopylae to close the Wehrmacht's way to central Greece failed, and on April 20 the Allied Command decides to evacuate its forces. On April 21 Yanina was taken. On April 23, Tsolakoglu signed an act on the general surrender of the Greek Armed Forces. On April 24, King George II, along with the government, flees to Crete. On the same day, the Germans seized the islands of Lemnos, Pharos and Samothrace. April 27 captured Athens.

German landing in Crete

On May 20, the Germans land a landing on Crete, which is in the hands of the British. Although the British fleet also thwarts the Germans' attempt to deliver reinforcements by sea, on May 21, the paratroopers seize the airfield in Maleme and provide reinforcements through the air. Despite the stubborn defense, British troops are forced to leave Crete by May 31. By June 2, the island was completely occupied. But in view of the large losses of the German paratroopers, Hitler refuses the plans for further landing operations to seize Cyprus and the Suez Canal.

As a result of the invasion, Yugoslavia is dismembered. Germany annexes Northern Slovenia, Hungary - Western Vojvodina, Bulgaria - Macedonian Macedonia, Italy - Southern Slovenia, part of the coast of Dalmatia, Montenegro and Kosovo. Croatia is declared an independent state under the Italo-German protectorate. In Serbia, the collaborative government of Nedic was created.

After the defeat of Greece, Bulgaria annexed East Macedonia and Western Thrace; The rest of the country is divided into Italian (western) and German (eastern) occupation zones.

British troops in Baghdad after the battle

On April 1, 1941, as a result of the coup in Iraq, the power is seized by the pro-German nationalist group Rashid Ali-Gailani. Under an agreement with the Vichy regime, Germany on May 12 begins to transport through Syria, a France-mandated military equipment to Iraq. But the Germans engaged in preparing for war with the USSR are not in a position to render substantial assistance to the Iraqi nationalists. English troops invade Iraq and topple the government of Ali-Gailani. On June 8, the British, along with parts of the "Fighting France" invade Syria and Lebanon and by mid-July force the Vichy troops to capitulate.

According to the estimates of the leadership of Great Britain and the USSR, there was a threat of involvement in 1941 on the side of Germany as an active ally of Iran. Therefore, from August 25, 1941 to September 17, 1941, a joint Anglo-Soviet operation was conducted to occupy Iran. Its goal was to protect the Iranian oil fields from the possible capture by their troops of Germany and the protection of the transport corridor (the Trans-Iranian route ), through which the Lend-Lease supplies for the Soviet Union were allied. During the operation, the Allied armed forces invaded Iran and established their control over Iran's railways and oil fields. At the same time, British troops occupied South Iran. The troops of the USSR occupied northern Iran.

Asia

In China, the Japanese in 1939-1941 captured the south-eastern part of the country. China because of the difficult domestic political situation in the country could not seriously rebuff (see: Civil War in China). After the capitulation of France, the administration of French Indochina recognized the Vichy government. Thailand, taking advantage of the weakening of France, made territorial claims to part of French Indochina. In October 1940, Thai troops invaded French Indochina. Thailand managed to inflict a number of defeats of the Vichy army. On May 9, 1941, under the pressure of Japan, the Vichy regime was forced to sign a peace treaty whereby Laos and part of Cambodia left Thailand. After the loss of a number of colonies in the Vichy regime in Africa, there was also a threat of the capture of Indochina by the British and the Degolleans. To prevent this, in June 1941 the fascist government agreed to the introduction of Japanese troops into the colony.

The second period of the war (June 1941 - November 1942)

Prehistory of the invasion of the USSR

The tragic start of the war for the Red Army is one of the most encrypted pages of our history. It is already possible to talk about generations of historians trying to find out the true reasons for our failures at the beginning of the war, but this problem has not been solved yet.

- P.N. Bobylev, candidate of historical sciences, associate professor, leading researcher of the Institute of Military History of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation [50] .

Thus, both Germany and the USSR carefully prepared for war. Since January 1941, this process entered the final stage, which made the beginning of the Soviet-German war inevitable in 1941, no matter who initiated it. As is now known, both sides, unaware of this, calculated in their calculations that the war would begin on their own initiative. [...]
Unfortunately, practically all these documents (Soviet military plans) remain secret, and it is unlikely that historians will soon be able to investigate them.

- M.I. Meltyukhov, Russian historian, doctor of historical sciences, senior researcher at the All-Russian Research Institute of Documentation and Archives [26][51] .

In June 1940, Hitler ordered the preparation of an attack on the USSR, and OKH July 22 begins the development of an attack plan, code-named "Operation Barbarossa." On July 31, 1940, at a meeting with the supreme military command in Berghof, Hitler declared:

[...] The hope of England is Russia and America. If hope for Russia falls away, America will fall away, for the fall of Russia in an unpleasant way will strengthen the importance of Japan in East Asia, Russia - the East Asian sword of England and America against Japan. [...]
Russia is the factor most of all put England. Something like that happened in London! The English were already completely down *, and now they rose again. From listening to the conversations it is clear that Russia is unpleasantly struck by the rapid development of events in Western Europe. [...]
But if Russia is broken, the last hope of England will be extinguished. The ruler of Europe and the Balkans will then be Germany.
The solution: in the course of this clash with Russia must be done away with. In the spring of the 41st. [...]
* Below (English)

- F. Halder. "Military Diary." A summary of Hitler's speech on July 31, 1940 [52] .

November 29 - December 7, 1940 the General Staff of the Wehrmacht land forces conducted an operational-strategic game on maps on the plan of aggression against the USSR. On December 18, 1940, the Barbarossa plan was approved by the Supreme Commander-in-Chief of Directive No. 21. The approximate date for completing military preparations is May 15, Since the end of 1940, a gradual transfer of German troops to the borders of the USSR began, the intensity of which sharply increased after May 22. The German command tried to create the impression that this was a distracting maneuver and that "the main task for the summer is the operation to invade the islands, and measures against the East are only defensive in nature and their scope depends only on Russian threats and military preparations" [53] . A campaign of disinformation against Soviet intelligence began, which received numerous contradictory reports on the dates (late April-early May, April 15, May 15-early June, May 14, late May, May 20, early June), and war conditions After and before the outbreak of the war with England, various demands on the USSR before the outbreak of the war, etc.).

At the end of December 1940 (announced at the end of September 1940), the largest meeting of the top leadership of the Red Army secretly takes place in Moscow, focusing on the nature of offensive operations, and two operational and strategic games on cards under the general title "Offensive Front Operation with a Breakthrough of the UR " [54] . The materials of the meeting were classified until 1990, and the course of games and the correlation of forces were not disclosed or were distorted into directly opposite [55][56][57][58] . In fact, the games dealt with the actions of a large strike group of Soviet troops from the state border of the USSR in the direction of (respectively) Poland-East Prussia and Hungary-Romania. The USSR, on the orders of the games, was the defending side, but the course of the games itself began with the offensive of the Red Army, and in the second game the army of the USSR began an offensive 90-180 km west of the border [59] . Planning and development of defense operations in the Red Army on a strategic scale from the autumn of 1940 until the beginning of the war were not carried out [50] .

On March 8, 1941, the Politburo of the Central Committee of the CPSU (B.) Decided to hold training camps at the end of May or beginning of June of the same year, according to which 975,870 people were to be called up for a period of 30 to 90 days (the vast majority is called for 45 days and more). Some historians view this as an element of hidden mobilization in a complex political situation - thanks to them, rifle divisions in the border and interior districts received 1900-6000 people, and the number of about 20 divisions practically reached the military time schedule. Other historians do not associate fees with the political situation and explain their retraining of the composition "in the spirit of modern demands". Historians MI Meltukhov, VA Nevezhin, publicists Viktor Suvorov and others find in the collections signs of preparing the USSR for an attack on Germany.

March 27 in Yugoslavia is a coup and the power comes anti-German forces. Hitler decides to conduct an operation against Yugoslavia and help the Italian troops in Greece, postponing the spring attack on the USSR in June 1941.

On June 10, the commander-in-chief of the Land Force of Germany, Field Marshal Walter von Brauchitsch, issued an order on the date of the outbreak of war against the USSR - June 22.

On June 13, directives were sent to the western districts ("To increase combat readiness ...") about the beginning of the advancement of the first and second echelon units to the border, at night and under the guise of exercises. On the night of 13 to 14 June (Friday-Saturday), an operation is launched in the western territories of the USSR to evict a "socially alien element" deep into the country. In total, about 100 thousand people were deported. On June 14, TASS reported that there is no reason for a war with Germany and that rumors that the USSR is preparing for war with Germany are false and provocative. Simultaneously with the TASS message, a massive hidden transfer of Soviet troops from the so-called second strategic echelon to the western borders of the USSR begins. June 18 issued an order to bring operational readiness No. 1 parts of the western districts. On June 21, after several reports of tomorrow's attack, at 11.30 pm, Directive No. 1 was sent to the troops, containing the likely date of the German attack and orders to be on alert and at the same time "not succumbing to any provocative actions".

Some sources (Viktor Suvorov, Meltyukhov) consider the movement of Soviet troops to the border not as a defensive measure, but as preparation for an attack on Germany, calling various dates for the attack: July 1941, 1942. Apart from this statement, there is a thesis about Germany's preventive war against the USSR. Opponents of the version about the preparation of the USSR for an attack on Germany argue that there is no clear evidence of preparation, and all signs of preparation allegedly for an attack are a preparation for war as such, without regard to an attack or repelling aggression.

Invasion of the USSR

Motherland-mother calls! - poster of the first days of the Great Patriotic War
It was created before December 1940 [60] .

On an early Sunday morning, June 22, 1941, Germany, with the support of its allies - Italy, Hungary, Romania, Finland and Slovakia - suddenly [61][62] and without warning [63] attacked the USSR. The Great Patriotic War began.

German forces inflict a powerful surprise blow across the western Soviet border by three army groups: "North", "Center" and "South". On the very first day, a significant part of Soviet ammunition, fuel and military equipment was destroyed or captured; Destroyed about 1200 aircraft. On June 23-25 ​​the Soviet fronts are trying to strike out counterstrikes, but they fail.

By the end of the first decade of July, German troops have seized Latvia, Lithuania, Byelorussia, a significant part of Ukraine, Moldavia and Estonia. The main forces of the Soviet Western Front were defeated in the Belostok-Minsk battle.

The Soviet North-Western Front was defeated in the border battle and abandoned. However, the Soviet counterattack near Soltsy on July 14-18 led to the suspension of the German offensive against Leningrad for almost 3 weeks.

On June 22 at 6.05 am, Soviet planes bombed Finnish battleships at Sottunga Naval Base, in 6.15 - fortifications of Alsher Island in the archipelago in front of the city of Turku, and at 6.45 - transport ships in the port of Korpo. At 7.55 the batteries of Soviet artillery began to operate from Cape Hanko. In Petsamo, one of the ships was fired across the border [64] .

On June 25, Soviet planes bombed Finnish airfields. June 26, Finland declares war on the USSR, Finnish troops are on the counterattack and soon the Karelian Isthmus, previously captured by the Soviet Union, has returned to its former historical Russian-Finnish border on the Karelian Isthmus (north of Lake Ladoga, the old boundary was crossed to great depths). June 29, German-Finnish troops are making an offensive in the Arctic, but the advance into the interior of the Soviet territory is stopped.

In Ukraine, the Soviet South-Western Front is also defeated and thrown out of the border, but the counterblow of the Soviet mechanized corps does not allow the German troops to make a deep breakthrough and capture Kiev.

In a new offensive on the central section of the Soviet-German front, launched on July 10, the Army Group Center on July 16 seizes Smolensk and surrounds the main forces of the reconstituted Soviet Western Front. In the wake of this success, and also considering the need to support the offensive against Leningrad and Kiev, on July 19, Hitler, despite the objections of the army command, gives the order to shift the direction of the main attack from the Moscow direction to the southern one (Kiev, Donbass) and northern (Leningrad) [65] . In accordance with this decision, the tank groups advancing on Moscow were withdrawn from the group "Center" and sent to the south (2nd Panzer Group) and to the north (3rd Panzer Group). The offensive against Moscow is to continue the infantry divisions of Army Group Center, but the battle in the Smolensk region continued, and on July 30 the Army Group Center was ordered to proceed to defense. Thus, the offensive against Moscow was postponed.

Residents of the besieged Leningrad collect water, which appeared after the shelling in the holes in the asphalt

August 8-9 Army Group "North" resumed its offensive on Leningrad. The front of the Soviet troops is split, they are forced to retreat along divergent lines to Tallinn and Leningrad. The defense of Tallinn tied up part of the German forces, but on August 28 Soviet troops are forced to begin evacuation. On September 8, with the capture of Shlisselburg, German troops take Leningrad into the ring.

On September 4, General Jodl, Chief of the General Staff of the German Armed Forces, receives a categorical refusal from the Marshal of Mannerheim to attack Leningrad [66] .

On September 6, Hitler, by his order ( Weisung Nr.35 ), stops the advance of the North Group of Forces to Leningrad and orders Field Marshal Leib to give all the tanks and a considerable number of troops in order to "start the offensive against Moscow as soon as possible" [67][68]] . Rejecting the assault on Leningrad, Army Group "North" on October 16 is making an offensive in the Tikhvin direction, intending to connect with the Finnish troops east of Leningrad. However, the counterattack of Soviet troops near Tikhvin frees the city and stops the enemy.

In Ukraine, in the beginning of August, troops of the Army Group "Yug" cut off from the Dnieper and encircle near Uman, two Soviet armies. However, they were not able to seize Kiev again. Only after the rotation of the troops of the southern flank of Army Group Center (2nd Army and 2nd Panzer Group) to the south did the situation of the Soviet South-Western Front deteriorate sharply. The German 2nd Panzer Group, reflecting the counterblow of the Bryansk Front, forces the Desna and on September 15 it joins the 1st Panzer Group advancing from the Kremenchug bridgehead. As a result of the battle for Kiev, the Soviet South-Western Front was completely defeated.

The catastrophe near Kiev opened the way for the Germans to the south. On October 5, the 1st Panzer Group marched to the Sea of ​​Azov near Melitopol, cutting off the forces of the Southern Front. In October 1941, German troops captured almost the entire Crimea, except for Sevastopol.

The defeat in the south opened the way for the Germans to the Donbass and Rostov. October 24, Kharkov fell, by the end of October the main cities of Donbass were occupied. On October 17, Taganrog fell. On November 21, the 1st Tank Army entered Rostov-on-Don, reaching the objectives of the Barbarossa plan in the south. However, on November 29 Soviet troops knock out the Germans from Rostov, and until the summer of 1942 the front line in the south is set at the turn of the river. Mius.

On September 30, 1941, German troops launched an offensive against Moscow. As a result of the deep breakthroughs of the German tank formations, the main forces of the Soviet Western, Reserve and Bryansk Front were surrounded by Vyazma and Bryansk. In total, more than 660 thousand people were captured.

The remains of the Western and Reserve Fronts are united on October 10 into a single Western Front under the command of Army General G. Zhukov.

On November 15-18, German troops, with the end of the mudslide, resume their offensive against Moscow, but by December they stopped in all directions.

On December 1, the commander of the troops of the "Center" group, General Field Marshal von Bock, reports that the troops are exhausted and unable to continue the offensive. [67]

December 5, 1941 Kalinin, Western and South-Western fronts go into a counteroffensive. The successful advance of Soviet troops forces the enemy to move to defense along the entire front line. In December, as a result of the offensive, the troops of the Western Front are liberated by Yakhrom, Klin, Volokolamsk, and Kaluga; The Kalinin Front liberates Kalinin; The south-western front is Efremov and Yelets. As a result, by the beginning of 1942, the Germans had been driven back to the west by 100-250 km. Defeat near Moscow was the first major defeat of the Wehrmacht in this war.

The success of Soviet troops near Moscow prompts the Soviet command to move into a large-scale offensive. January 8, 1942, the forces of the Kalinin, Western and North-Western Front go on the offensive against the German Army Group Center. They fail to complete the task, and after several attempts, by mid-April, they have to stop the offensive, bearing heavy losses. The Germans retain the Rzhev-Vyazma bridgehead, which is dangerous for Moscow. Attempts of the Volkhov and Leningrad fronts to unblock Leningrad were also unsuccessful and led to the encirclement in March 1942 of part of the forces of the Volkhov Front.

The Japanese offensive in the Pacific Ocean

American battleships " [en] " burn after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor

December 7, 1941 Japan strikes at the US naval base Pearl Harbor. During the attack, which involved 441 aircraft, based on six Japanese aircraft carriers, 8 battleships, 6 cruisers and more than 300 US aircraft were sunk and seriously damaged. Thus, in one day, most of the battleships of the Pacific Fleet of the United States were destroyed. However, the main force of the fleet - the carrier-based connection - is absent on the base.

In addition to the United States, the next day, the Great Britain, the Netherlands (the government in emigration), Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the South African Union, Cuba, Costa Rica, the Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Honduras and Venezuela are also declaring war on Japan. December 11, Germany and Italy, and December 13 - Romania, Hungary and Bulgaria - declare war on the United States.

Japanese soldiers fighting in the streets of Kuala Lumpur

On December 8, the Japanese block the British military base in Hong Kong and begin an invasion of Thailand, British Malaya and the US Philippines. The British squadron that flew to the interception is exposed to air strikes, and two battleships - the strike force of the British in this area of ​​the Pacific - go to the bottom.

Thailand after a short resistance agrees to conclude a military alliance with Japan and declares war on the US and Britain. Japanese aviation from the territory of Thailand begins bombing of Burma.

On December 10, the Japanese seized the US base on Guam Island, December 23 - on Wake Island, on December 25, Hong Kong fell. On December 8, the Japanese break through the British defenses in Malaya and, promptly advancing, push the British forces back to Singapore. Singapore, which the British had previously considered an "impregnable fortress," fell on February 15, 1942, after a six-day siege. About 70 thousand British and Australian soldiers are taken prisoner.

In the Philippines in late December 1941, the Japanese captured the islands of Mindanao and Luzon. The remnants of American troops manage to gain a foothold on the Bataan peninsula and the island of Correchidor.

On January 11, 1942, Japanese troops invade the Dutch East Indies and soon seize the islands of Borneo and Celebs. On January 28, the Japanese fleet defeats the Anglo-Dutch squadron in the Yavan Sea. Allies are trying to create a powerful defense on the island of Java, but by March 2, capitulate.

On January 23, 1942, the Japanese capture the Bismarck archipelago, including the island of New Britain, and then seize the northwestern part of the Solomon Islands, in February - the Gilbert Islands, and in early March invade New Guinea.

On March 8, attacking in Burma, the Japanese capture Rangoon, at the end of April - Mandalay, and by May they have captured almost the whole of Burma, defeating the British and Chinese troops and cutting off southern China from India. However, the beginning of the rainy season and lack of strength do not allow the Japanese to develop their success and carry out an invasion of India.

On May 6, the last grouping of American and Philippine troops capitulates in the Philippines. By the end of May, 1942, Japan, through insignificant losses, managed to establish control over Southeast Asia and North-West Oceania. American, British, Dutch and Australian troops suffer a crushing defeat, having lost all their main forces in this region.

The second stage of the battle for the Atlantic

The American convoy is sent to Britain. November 1941

Since the summer of 1941, the main goal of the actions of the German and Italian fleets in the Atlantic is the destruction of merchant ships, in order to impede the delivery of weapons, strategic raw materials and food to Britain. The German and Italian commands use in the Atlantic mainly submarines that operate on communications linking Great Britain to North America, African colonies, the South African Union, Australia, India and the USSR.

Since the end of August 1941, in accordance with the agreement of the governments of Great Britain and the USSR, mutual military deliveries through the Soviet northern ports begin, after which a significant part of German submarines begin to operate in the North Atlantic. In the fall of 1941, before the US entered the war, attacks of German submarines on American ships were noted. In response, the US Congress on November 13, 1941, adopts two amendments to the law on neutrality, according to which the ban on the entry of American ships into the war zones is lifted and it is permitted to arm merchant ships.

With the strengthening of anti-submarine defense on communications in July-November, losses of the merchant fleet of Great Britain, its allies and neutral countries are substantially reduced. In the second half of 1941 they make 172.1 thousand gross tons, which is 2.8 times less than in the first half of the year.

However, soon the German fleet intercepts the initiative for a short time. After the entry into the US war, a significant part of the German submarines starts operating in the coastal waters of the Atlantic coast of America. In the first half of 1942, the loss of Anglo-American ships in the Atlantic is once again increasing. But the improvement of anti-submarine defense methods allows the Anglo-American command from the summer of 1942 to improve the situation on Atlantic maritime communications, to launch a series of retaliatory strikes against the German submarine fleet and push it back into the central regions of the Atlantic.

German submarines operate virtually throughout the Atlantic Ocean: near the coast of Africa, South America, the Caribbean. August 22, 1942, after the Germans sank a number of Brazilian ships, Brazil declares war on Germany. After this, fearing an undesirable reaction from other countries in South America, German submarines are reducing their activity in this region.

In general, despite a number of successes, Germany has not been able to disrupt Anglo-American shipping. In addition, in March 1942, British aviation began strategic bombing of important economic centers and German cities, allied and occupied countries.

Mediterranean-African campaigns

In the summer of 1941, all German aviation operating in the Mediterranean was transferred to the Soviet-German front. This facilitates the tasks of the British, who, taking advantage of the passivity of the Italian fleet, seize the initiative in the Mediterranean. By mid-1942, the British, despite a number of setbacks, completely violated the sea link between Italy and the Italian troops in Libya and Egypt.

A damaged German tank near Tobruk. November 27, 1941

By the summer of 1941, the situation of British forces in North Africa was improving considerably. This is largely contributed to the complete defeat of the Italians in Ethiopia. The British command now has the opportunity to transfer forces from East Africa to the North.

Using advantageous conditions, the British troops on Nov. 18, 1941, go on the offensive. November 24, the Germans are trying to strike a counterblow, but it ends in failure. The British are releasing Tobruk and, developing the offensive, occupy El-Ghazal, Dernu and Benghazi. By January, the British are again taking Cyrenaica, but their troops are spread out over a vast space, which Rommel took advantage of. On January 21, the Italian-German troops go on the offensive, break through the British defenses and rush to the northeast. At El-Ghazal they, however, are stopped, and the front again stabilizes for 4 months.

On May 26, 1942, Germany and Italy resume their offensive in Libya. The British are suffering great losses and are again forced to retreat. June 21 surrenders the British garrison in Tobruk. The Italian-German troops continue to advance successfully and on July 1 approach the English defensive line at El Alamein, 60 kilometers from Alexandria, where they are forced to stop because of large losses. In August, the British command in North Africa is replaced. On August 30, the Italian-German forces again try to break through the British defenses near El-Khalfa, but they fail completely, which is the turning point of the entire campaign.

October 23, 1942, the British go on the offensive, break through the enemy's defense and by the end of November they liberate the entire territory of Egypt, enter Libya and occupy Cyrenaica.

British Air Force in Madagascar, December 1942

Meanwhile, in Africa, fighting continues for the French colony of Madagascar, which was under Vichy control. The reason for fighting against the colony of the former ally for Great Britain was the potential threat of using Madagascar by German submarines as a base for operations in the Indian Ocean. On May 5, 1942, British and South African troops landed on the island. The French troops are stubbornly resisting, but by November they are forced to capitulate. Madagascar passes under the administration of "Free France".

November 8, 1942, the US-British forces begin the landing in French North Africa. The next day, the commander-in-chief of Vichy Francois Darlan negotiates with the Americans about the alliance and the cease-fire and takes over the full power in the French North Africa. In response, the Germans, with the consent of the Vichy government, occupy the southern part of France and begin the transfer of troops to Tunisia. 13 ноября союзные войска начинают наступление в Тунис из Алжира, в этот же день англичанами взят Тобрук. Союзники достигли Западного Туниса и к 17 ноября столкнулись с немецкими войсками, которым к тому времени удалось занять восточную часть Туниса. К 30 ноября из-за плохой погоды линия фронта стабилизировалась до февраля 1943 года.

Создание Антигитлеровской коалиции

Сразу же после вторжения Германии в СССР представители Великобритании и США заявили о своей поддержке Советскому Союзу и начали оказывать ему экономическую помощь. 1 января 1942 года в Вашингтоне представители СССР, США, Великобритании и Китая подписали Декларацию Объединённых Наций, положив тем самым начало Антигитлеровской коалиции. Позднее к ней присоединилось ещё 22 страны.

Восточный фронт: второе немецкое крупномасштабное наступление

Пленённые под Харьковом бойцы Красной армии

И советская, и немецкая стороны ждали от лета 1942 года реализации своих наступательных планов. Гитлер нацеливал основные усилия вермахта на южный сектор фронта, преследуя в первую очередь экономические цели.

Стратегический план советского командования на 1942 год состоял в том, чтобы « последовательно осуществить ряд стратегических операций на разных направлениях, чтобы заставить противника распылить свои резервы, не дать создать ему сильную группировку для отражения наступления ни в одном из пунктов » [69] . Основные усилия Красной Армии, по замыслам Ставки ВГК, предполагалось сосредоточить на центральном секторе советско-германского фронта. Планировалось также осуществить наступление под Харьковом, в Крыму и прорвать блокаду Ленинграда.

Однако предпринятое советскими войсками в мае 1942 года наступление под Харьковом закончилось провалом. Немецкие войска сумели парировать удар, разгромили советские войска и сами перешли в наступление. Сокрушительное поражение потерпели советские войска также в Крыму. 9 месяцев советские моряки удерживали Севастополь, и к 4 июля 1942 года остатки советских войск эвакуировались в Новороссийск. В итоге оборона советских войск на южном участке оказалась ослабленной. Пользуясь этим, немецкое командование предприняло стратегическое наступление на двух направлениях: на Сталинград и на Кавказ.

Комбат ведёт в атаку своих солдат. Ukraine. 1942 год.

После ожесточённых боев под Воронежем и в Донбассе немецким войскам группы армий «Б» удалось прорваться в большую излучину Дона. В середине июля началась Сталинградская битва, в которой советским войскам ценой больших потерь удалось сковать ударную группировку противника.

Наступавшая на Кавказ группа армий «А» 23 июля взяла Ростов-на-Дону и продолжила наступление на Кубань. 12 августа был взят Краснодар. Однако в боях в предгорьях Кавказа и под Новороссийском советским войскам удалось остановить противника.

Тем временем на центральном участке советское командование предприняло крупную наступательную операцию по разгрому ржевско-сычёвской группировки противника (9-й армии группы армий «Центр»). Однако проводимая с 30 июля по конец сентября Ржевско-Сычёвская операция не увенчалась успехом.

Не удалось также прорвать блокаду Ленинграда, хотя советское наступление заставило немецкое командование отказаться от штурма города.

Тихоокеанский фронт: Перелом

Третий период войны (ноябрь 1942 — июнь 1944 годов)

Перелом на Восточном фронте

Боец Красной армии. Stalingrad.

19 ноября 1942 года Красная Армия переходит в контрнаступление под Сталинградом, где ценой невероятных усилий наносит переломное, отнявшее стратегическую инициативу у немецких войск поражение, в результате которого удаётся окружить и разгромить две немецкие, две румынские и одну итальянскую армии; в общей сложности 330 тыс. солдат уничтожено, около 92 тыс. взято в плен [70] .

С 25 ноября по 20 декабря 1942 советское наступление на центральном участке советско-германского фронта (операция «Марс») закончилось неудачно.

В начале 1943 года советские войска переходят в контрнаступление по всему фронту. Освобождены Курск и множество других городов. В феврале-марте фельдмаршал Манштейн ещё раз перехватывает инициативу у советских войск и отбрасывает их на некоторых участках южного направления, однако развить успех ему не удаётся.

Начало наступления на Ленинградском фронте. 1943 год.

В июле 1943 года немецкое командование в последний раз пытается вернуть себе стратегическую инициативу в битве под Курском, однако она заканчивается серьёзным поражением немецких войск. Начинается отступление немецких войск по всей линии фронта — им приходится оставить Орёл, Белгород, Новороссийск. Начинаются бои за Белоруссию и Украину. В битве за Днепр Красная Армия наносит Германии очередное поражение, освободив Левобережную Украину и Крым.

В конце 1943 — первой половине 1944 года основные боевые действия проходят на южном участке фронта. Немцы оставляют территорию Украины. Красная Армия на юге выходит к границе 1941 года и вступает на территорию Румынии.

Англо-американский десант в Африке и Италии

8 ноября 1942 года в Марокко высадился крупный англо-американский десант. Сломав слабое сопротивление войск, подконтрольных вишистскому правительству, к концу ноября, преодолев 900 км, вступили в Тунис, куда к этому времени немцы перебросили часть своих войск из Западной Европы.

Тем временем английская армия перешла в наступление в Ливии. Находившиеся здесь итало-немецкие войска не смогли удержаться у Эль-Аламейна и к февралю 1943 года, понеся большие потери, отступили в Тунис. 20 марта объединённые англо-американские войска перешли в наступление в глубь территории Туниса. Итало-немецкое командование пыталось эвакуировать свои войска в Италию, однако к тому времени британский флот полностью овладел Средиземноморьем и перерезал все пути к отступлению. 13 мая итало-немецкие войска капитулировали.

On July 10, 1943, the Allies landed in Sicily. The Italian troops here surrendered almost without a fight, while the German 14th Panzer Corps offered resistance to the allies. On July 22, US troops captured the city of Palermo, and the Germans retreated to the north-east of the island, to the Strait of Messina. By August 17, the German units, having lost all armored vehicles and heavy weapons, crossed to the Apennine peninsula. Simultaneously with the landing in Sicily the forces of "Free France" landed on Corsica (operation "Vesuvius"). The defeat of the Italian army sharply worsened the situation in the country. Discontent with the Mussolini regime has grown. King Victor Emmanuel III decided to arrest Mussolini and put the government of Marshal Badoglio at the head of the country.

In September 1943, Anglo-American troops landed in the south of the Appennine peninsula. Badoglio signed a truce with them and announced the withdrawal of Italy from the war. However, using the confusion of the allies, Hitler freed Mussolini (see Operation "Oak"), and in the north of the country the puppet state of the Republic of Salo was established.

In the fall of 1943, US and British troops moved north. October 1, the allies and Italian partisans liberated Naples, by November 15, the Allies broke through the defense of the Germans on the Volturno River and crossed it. By January 1944, the Allies had reached the German fortifications of the "Winter Line" in the Monte Cassino area and the Garigliano River. In January, February and March 1944, they attacked the German positions three times in order to break through the enemy's defense on the river Garigliano and enter Rome, but because of the worsened weather, heavy rains, they failed, and the frontline stabilized until May. However, on January 22, the Allies landed troops in Anzio, south of Rome. In Anzio, the Germans made unsuccessful counterattacks. By May the weather had improved, and on 11 May the Allies launched an offensive (Battle of Monte Cassino), broke through the defense of the German forces in Monte Cassino and on May 25 joined forces with Anzio landed earlier. On June 4, 1944, the Allies liberated Rome.

Strategic bombing of Germany in 1943

In January 1943, at the Casablanca Conference, it was decided to start strategic bombing of Germany by joint Anglo-American forces. The targets of the bombings were to be both military industry objects, and the cities of Germany. The operation was code-named "Point-blank".

In July-August 1943, [en] suspended air operations over Germany until the arrival of the P-51 Mustang fighters, which had sufficient range to fly to Berlin and back.

Guadalcanal. Asia

From August 1942 to February 1943, Japanese and American troops fight for control of the island of Guadalcanal in the Solomon Islands archipelago. In this battle of attrition, the United States ultimately prevails. The need to send reinforcements to Guadalcanal weakens the Japanese forces in New Guinea, which contributes to the liberation of the island from Japanese troops, which ends in early 1943.

At the end of 1942 and during 1943, British troops made several unsuccessful attempts at a counter-offensive in Burma.

In November 1943, the Allies managed to seize the Japanese island of Tarawa.

Conference in the third period of the war

The rapid development of events on all fronts, especially on the Soviet-German front, required the Allies to clarify and agree on further plans for warfare. This was done at the Tehran conference held in November 1943.

The fourth period of the war (June 1944 - May 1945)

The Western Front of Germany

American soldiers on the beach of Omaha

June 6, 1944, the allied forces of the United States, Britain and Canada after two months of distracting maneuvers carry out the largest amphibious operation in history and land in Normandy.

In August, American and French troops landed in the south of France, liberated the cities of Toulon and Marseille. On August 25, the Allies enter Paris and release it, together with the French Resistance units.

In September, the allied offensive begins on the territory of Belgium. By the end of 1944, the Germans with great difficulty managed to stabilize the front line in the west. On December 16, the Germans go over to the counter-offensive in the Ardennes, and the command of the Allies sends reinforcements from other sectors of the front and reserves to the Ardennes. The Germans are able to advance 100 kilometers into the interior of Belgium, but on December 22, the US 3rd Army of General Patton launched a counteroffensive, attacking the Germans from the south, and by December 25, 1944 the German offensive drowned, and the allies moved into a general counteroffensive. By December 27, the Germans did not hold the captured positions in the Ardennes and began to retreat. The strategic initiative is irrevocably transferred to the allies. In January 1945, German troops are making local distracting counter-attacks in Alsace, which also ended unsuccessfully. After this, American and French troops surrounded parts of the 19th German Army near the town of Colmar in Alsace and defeated them by February 9 (the "Colmar Kettle"). The Allies broke through the German fortifications ("Siegfried Line", or "Western Shaft") and began an invasion of Germany.

In February-March 1945, the Allies in the course of the Meuse-Rhine operation captured the entire territory of Germany west of the Rhine and crossed the Rhine. The German troops, having suffered heavy defeats in the Ardennes and the Meuse-Rhine operations, retreated to the right bank of the Rhine. In April 1945, the Allies surrounded the German Army Group "B" in the Ruhr and by April 17, they defeated it, and the Wehrmacht lost the Ruhr Industrial Region, Germany's most important industrial area.

Canadian sniper during the battles in Italy.

The Allies continued their offensive deep into Germany and on April 25 met with Soviet troops on the Elbe. By May 2, British and Canadian troops (the 21st Army Group) had captured the entire north-west of Germany and reached the borders of Denmark.

After the completion of the Ruhr operation, the liberated American units were transferred to the southern flank of the 6th Army Group, to seize the southern regions of Germany and Austria.

On the southern flank, the American and French troops, advancing, captured the south of Germany and Austria. Parts of the 7th US Army crossed the Alps along the Brenner Pass and on May 4 met with the troops of the 15th Allied Army Group advancing in Northern Italy.

In Italy, the Allied advance was very slow. Despite all attempts, they did not manage to break the front line at the end of 1944 and force the Po river. In April 1945, their offensive resumed, they overcame the German fortifications ("Gotha Line"), and broke into the valley of the River Po.

On April 28, 1945, Italian partisans capture and execute Mussolini. Completely North Italy was cleared of Germans only in May 1945.

Strategic bombing of Germany in 1944-1945

When Operation Pointblank was officially completed on April 1, 1944, the Allied Air Force was on its way to gaining air superiority over the whole of Europe. Although the strategic bombings to some extent continued, the Allied Air Force switched to tactical bombing as part of assassination in Normandy. Only in mid-September 1944, the strategic bombing of Germany again became a priority for the Allied Air Force [71] .

Large-scale round-the-clock bombing - the US Air Force in the afternoon, Great Britain at night - many industrial areas of Germany, mainly [de] and often bombarded Dresden bombarded.

Soviet offensive

In the summer of 1944 the offensive of the Red Army began in Eastern Byelorussia. By the autumn of the German troops almost all of the previously occupied territory of the USSR was cleared: Byelorussia, Ukraine, and the Baltic states. Only in the west of Latvia, the encircled group of German troops could survive until the end of the war.

As a result of the Soviet offensive in the north, Finland announced its withdrawal from the war. However, German troops refuse to leave the territory of Finland. As a result, the former "brothers in arms" are forced to fight against each other. In August, as a result of the offensive of the Red Army, Romania withdraws from the war, Bulgaria in September. The Germans are beginning to evacuate troops from the territory of Yugoslavia and Greece, where the people's liberation movements take control.

Soviet flag at the Brandenburg Gate of Berlin.

In February 1945, the Budapest operation was conducted, after which the last European ally of Germany - Hungary - is forced to capitulate. The offensive begins in Poland, the Red Army occupies East Prussia.

At the end of April 1945 the Red Army launched an offensive against Berlin. Realizing their total defeat, Hitler and Goebbels committed suicide. On May 2, after persistent two-week battles for the German capital, the general of artillery Weidling, accompanied by three German generals, crossed the front line and surrendered. An hour later, while at the headquarters of the 8th Guards Army, he wrote an order for the capitulation of Berlin. On the night of May 8-9, the German command signed an act of unconditional surrender of all Nazi Germany. Germany is divided into four occupation zones: Soviet, American, British and French.

The fighting after the surrender of Germany

Even after the unconditional surrender of Nazi Germany, the resistance of certain parts of the German troops continued.

On the night of 11 to 12 May, near the demarcation line near the village of Slivice in the vicinity of the city of Plzen during the day of the fighting, the remains of the mixed divisions of the SS left from Prague led by the head of the SS Office in Bohemia and Moravia, Obergruppenfiihrer SS Count Karl-Friedrich von Puckler- Burghaus. In the more than seven thousandth grouping of the Germans were the remains of the SS divisions "Wallenstein" and "Das Reich".

On 14-15 May, the last battle of World War II in Europe took place in Northern Slovenia, during which the People's Liberation Army of Yugoslavia defeated the remnants of German troops and collaborators.

Pacific theater of military operations

In the Pacific, the fighting was also quite successful for the Allies. In June 1944, the Americans seized the Mariana Islands. In October 1944, a major battle took place in the Gulf of Leyte, in which the US tactical victory was won. In land battles, the Japanese army operated more successfully, and they succeeded in capturing the whole of Southern China and connecting with their troops that operated at that time in Indochina.

Conference of the Fourth Period of the War

By the end of the fourth period of the war, the Allied victory was no longer in doubt. However, they had to agree on the post-war arrangement of the world and, first of all, Europe. Discussion of these issues by the heads of the three allied powers was held in February 1945 in Yalta. The decisions taken at the Yalta Conference, for many years to come, determined the course of post-war history.

The fifth period of the war (May 1945 - September 1945)

End of the war with Japan

August 9, 1945, the atomic mushroom over Nagasaki

After the end of the war in Europe, Japan remained the last enemy of the countries of the anti-fascist coalition. By that time, about 60 countries had declared war on Japan. However, despite the current situation, the Japanese were not going to capitulate and announced the conduct of the war to the victorious end. In June 1945, the Japanese lost Indonesia, were forced to leave Indochina. July 26, 1945, the United States, Britain and China presented an ultimatum to the Japanese, but it was rejected.

Following the results of the Yalta Conference, the USSR undertook to transfer troops from Europe to the Far East within 3 months and launch a large-scale offensive by August 8, 1945, in exchange receiving the Kuriles and South Sakhalin [72] .

August 6 on Hiroshima, and three days later on Nagasaki, Americans dropped atomic bombs, and as a result, two cities were almost erased from the face of the earth. August 8, the Soviet Union declared war on Japan, and on August 9 launched an offensive and defeated the Japanese Kwantung Army in Manchukuo within two weeks. September 2 at 9:02 am Tokyo time (at 4:02 Moscow time) on board the US battleship "Missouri" was signed an act of unconditional surrender of Japan. The largest war in the history of mankind is over.

The state of war between the USSR and Japan was terminated by the Joint Declaration of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and Japan of October 19, 1956. At the same time, a peace treaty between the USSR and Japan was never signed. Japan disputes the ownership of Russia of the four Southern Kuril Islands.

Opinions and assessments

Opinions and assessments about the outcome and consequences of the Second World War are highly ambiguous, due to the high saturation of events in a relatively short historical period and a huge number of actors. Often the leaders involved [their unknown term ] their countries against the opinion of the majority of the population, maneuvering and duplicity were in the order of things.

  • On the plans for the conquest of the Germans for Mein Kampf .
  • Премьер-министр Великобритании Уинстон Черчилль, будучи военным министром, в 1918 году был одним из главных сторонников и основных инициаторов военной интервенции в Россию, заявив о необходимости «задушить большевизм в колыбели». С этого времени Великобритания и Франция с сателлитами последовательно добивались международной изоляции СССР, в результате чего в сентябре 1938 года было подписано Мюнхенское соглашение, прямо названное в СССР «Мюнхенским сговором», фактически развязавшее руки Гитлеру для агрессии в Восточной Европе. Тем не менее, после неудач Великобритании и союзников почти на всех театрах военных действий и нападения Германии на СССР в июне 1941 Черчилль заявил [73] , что «для борьбы с гуннами (то есть немцами) готов на союз с кем угодно, даже с большевиками». В целом политика именно Британии дала Германии время и ресурсы для создания наиболее боеспособной в мире армии.
  • Уже после нападения Германии на СССР Черчилль, раздражённый советским послом Иваном Майским, требовавшим помощи большей, чем планировала предоставлять Великобритания, и недвусмысленно намекавшим в случае отказа на возможный проигрыш СССР, заявил [73] :

Вспомните, что ещё четыре месяца назад мы на нашем острове не знали, не выступите ли вы против нас на стороне немцев. Право же, мы считали это вполне возможным. Но даже тогда мы были убеждены в нашей конечной победе. Мы никогда не считали, что наше спасение в какой-либо мере зависит от ваших действий. Что бы ни случилось и как бы вы ни поступили, вы-то не имеете никакого права упрекать нас.

Здесь Черчилль слукавил: уже после войны он признал, что для захвата Великобритании Гитлеру хватило бы 150 тыс. солдат. Однако «континентальная политика» Гитлера требовала сначала захвата большей части самого большого материка — Евразии.

  • Касательно начала войны и успехов Германии в начальной её фазе глава Оперативного отдела Генштаба Германии генерал-полковник Альфред Йодль отметил [74] :

Если мы не потерпели крах ещё в 1939 году, то лишь потому, что во время польской кампании примерно 110 французских и английских дивизий на Западе пребывали в полном бездействии против 25 немецких дивизий.

Итоги войны

Ход Второй мировой войны в Европе (анимация)

The Second World War had a huge impact on the fate of mankind. It was attended by 72 states (80% of the world's population). Military operations were conducted on the territory of 40 states. The armed forces mobilized 110 million people. Total human losses reached 60-65 million people, of whom 27 million people were killed on the fronts, many of them citizens of the USSR. Also, China, Germany, Japan and Poland suffered great human losses.

Military expenses and military losses amounted to $ 4 trillion. Material costs reached 60-70% of the national income of the belligerents. Only the industry of the USSR, the United States, Great Britain and Germany produced 652,700 aircraft (combat and transport), 286,700 tanks, self-propelled guns and armored vehicles, over 1 million artillery pieces, and more than 4.8 million machine guns (excluding Germany) , 53 million rifles, carbines and automatic weapons and a huge number of other weapons and equipment. The war was accompanied by colossal destruction, the destruction of tens of thousands of cities and villages, the untold calamities of tens of millions of people.

As a result of the war, the role of Western Europe in world politics was weakened. The main powers in the world were the USSR and the United States. Britain and France, despite the victory, were significantly weakened. The war showed the inability of them and other Western European countries to maintain huge colonial empires. In the countries of Africa and Asia, the anti-colonial movement has intensified. As a result of the war, a number of countries were able to achieve independence: Ethiopia, Iceland, Syria, Lebanon, Vietnam, Indonesia. In the countries of Eastern Europe, occupied by Soviet troops, socialist regimes were established. One of the main outcomes of the Second World War was the creation of the United Nations Organization on the basis of the Anti-Fascist coalition formed during the war to prevent world wars in the future.

In some countries, the partisan movements that developed during the war tried to continue their activities after the war ended. In Greece, the conflict between the Communists and the pre-war government grew into a civil war. The anti-communist armed detachments still operated for some time after the war in Western Ukraine, the Baltic region, and Poland. In China, the civil war continued, which lasted there since 1927.

Fascist and Nazi ideologies were recognized as criminal at the Nuremberg trial and banned. In many Western countries, the support of the Communist parties has grown due to their active participation in the anti-fascist struggle during the war.

Europe was divided into two camps: Western capitalist and eastern socialist. Relations between the two blocs deteriorated sharply. A few years after the end of the war, the Cold War began.

As a result of the war, the USSR actually returned to its territory the territories annexed by Japan from the Russian Empire at the end of the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905 following the results of the Portsmouth Peace (southern Sakhalin and, temporarily, Kwantung with Port Arthur and Dalniy), as well as the previously ceded Japan in 1875, the main group of the Kuril Islands and the Treaty of Simons of Japan, established in 1855, the southern part of the Kurils.

Contribution of various states of the anti-Hitler coalition to victory over Nazi Germany

Russian historian Valentin Falin expressed this opinion: "While politicians often occupied diametrically opposite positions with respect to the second front and joint operations, the soldiers honestly performed their duty. It was thanks to the cooperation of the military West and East that the war ended in May 1945, and not dragged on for several years. "

As noted by the British professor King's College and author of a number of works on the Second World War, already after the war the former Hitlerite Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop named the three main reasons for the defeat of Germany:

  • The Soviet resistance, unexpectedly stubborn;
  • Large-scale deliveries of weapons and equipment from the United States;
  • The successes of the Western allies in the struggle for supremacy in the air.

However, the American political scientist and sociologist Zbigniew Brzezinski is not inclined to exaggerate America's role in the world war [75] :

« Paradoxically, the defeat of Nazi Germany increased the international status of America, although it did not play a decisive role in the military victory over Hitlerism . The merit of achieving this victory must be recognized for the Stalinist Soviet Union, the odious rival of Hitler. »

It should be noted that 70-80% of losses for the entire Second World War were incurred by the German armed forces on the Soviet front [76] (according to Falin, this share reaches 93% [77] ). On the Eastern Front, in the fight against the USSR, during the war, German troops lost 507 divisions, 100 German Allied divisions were completely defeated [78] .

Notes

  1. ^ Also fought against the Yugoslav troops in their homeland
  2. ^ Also fought against the People's Liberation Army of Yugoslavia and the Soviet troops
  3. ^ Go to: 1 2 3 Also conducted military operations against the Soviet troops
  4. ^ Go to: 1 2 Also conducted military operations against the Ukrainian Insurgent Army
  5. ^ Also fought against the British troops and the People's Republican Greek League
  6. ^ Also fought against the People's Liberation Army of Greece
  7. ^ Олевська Республіка та Поліська січ: partisans in the rock ІІ Світової війні. Volodimir Gynda
  8. ^ TARAS BOROVETS I "POLISKA SICH" - UPA (B-B) I RADYANSKI PARTYZANI. Volodymyr Dzobak
  9. ^ Also fought against the French troops
  10. ^ Also fought against the Army of the Krai and Polesye Sich
  11. Providing the Allies with military bases in the Azores , as well as participating in military operations against Japan of Portuguese volunteers in the territory of East Timor
  12. Formally, Vichy France remained neutral, but the armed forces loyal to the Vichy government took part in hostilities against the Allies on the territories of some colonies (see the Madagascar operation , the Senegalese operation , the Syrian-Lebanese operation , the Gabonese operation ).
  13. ^ Iranian operation
  14. On September 17, 1940, San Marino declared war on Great Britain. September 29, 1943 San Marino announced its neutrality, but June 26, 1944 was bombed by the British Air Force.
  15. ^ The dispatch of a volunteer " Blue Division " to the Eastern Front and the refueling of German submarines in Spanish ports
  16. ^ During the Soviet Union , a second-world war was adopted with a lowercase letter (see, for example: D. E. Rosenthal, Lowercase or Lowercase, Dictionary-Handbook, 4th ed., Stereotype.) Moscow: Russian Language, 1988 , ISBN 5-200-00316-4 ). At present, it is accepted to write with a capital letter - World War II .
  17. ^ This date of the beginning of the Second World War is conditional and contested by some researchers: see, for example, When did the Second World War begin? - Memoirs of Valentin Falin // Arguments of the Week No. 18 (104), May 7, 2008
  18. ^ History of the Second World War. 1939-1945 . Military Publishing House, 1982. S. 465. September 2 - The signing of the act of unconditional surrender of militaristic Japan. The end of the Second World War.
  19. ^ World War II 1939-1945 - TSB - Yandex. Dictionaries
  20. ^ Martin Kitchen. The Cambridge Illustrated History of Germany: -Cambridge University Press 1996 ISBN 0-521-45341-0
  21. ^ Russian Germany Reichswehr and the Red Army: marriage by calculation
  22. ^ Lipetsk secret aviation school German track in the history of domestic aviation. / Sobolev DA, Khazanov DB
  23. ^ German tanks in battle Mikhail Borisovich Baryatinsky
  24. ^ Foreign Policy of the Vemar Republic (1919-1932) / NV Pavlov // MGIMO.ru. ? 2011. - October.
  25. ^ Pavlov NV Foreign policy of the Third Reich (1933-1945)
  26. Go to: 1 2 MI Meltyukhov. The missed chance of Stalin 2000.
  27. ^ Simonov NS "Strengthen the Defense of the Country of Soviets" ("Military Alarm" in 1927 and Its Consequences) // Domestic History. 1996. № 3. P. 155-161
  28. ^ Heinz Guderian, "Memoirs of the German General." German tank forces in World War II. 1939-1945 », Tsentrpoligraf, 2005
  29. Pykhalov I. The Great War of War. - Moscow: Yauza, Eksmo, 2005.
  30. Mikhail Baryatinsky, "German tanks in battle"
  31. ^ Information from the site
  32. ^ [Hrono.info: http://www.hrono.info/dokum/192_dok/ber_doc.html ]
  33. Galaktionov M.R. Paris, 1914: The pace of operations . - M .: AST , 2001. - 704 p. - (Military Historical Library). - 5000 copies. - ISBN 5-17-000056-1 .
  34. ^ History of the Second World War. 1939-1945. Volume 3 http://historic.ru/books/item/f00/s00/z0000019/st070.shtml
  35. ^ Heinz Hene - The Black Order of the SS. History of the security forces: Chapter 10 CC AND FOREIGN POLICY
  36. ^ Christian Zentner / CHRONICK ZWEITER WELTKRIEG / Otus Verlag AG, St.Gallen, S. 20-22, 2007 ISBN 978-3-907200-56-8
  37. ^ II. Weltkrieg / Dokumentation Das III.Reich. Gutersloch: Mohndruck Graphische Betriebe GmbH. 1989 ISBN 3-88199-536-6
  38. ^ Gerhart Binder. Epoche der Entscheidungen / Eine Geschichte des 20. Jahrhunderts. Sechste Auflage. Stuttgart-Degerloch: Seewald Verlag. 1960.
  39. ^ Christopher R. Browning, The Origins of the Final Solution: The Evolution of the Nazi Jewish Policy , University of Nebraska Press, p.441 , footnotes 68 and 69
  40. ^ Reinhard Pozorny (Hg). Deutsches National-Lexikon, Munchen: DSZ -Verlag. ISBN 3-925924-09-4 .
  41. ^ Chronik des Zweiten Weltkrieg. MOHN Media. Mohndruck GmbH. Gutersloch.2004, ISBN 3-577-14367-3
  42. ^ Vishlev OV On the eve of June 22, 1941 - Moscow: Nauka, 2001 "Friendship, fastened with blood"? (On the question of the nature of Soviet-German relations, 1939-1940)
  43. ^ Gabriel Gorodetsky "The Myth of the Icebreaker": On the Eve of the War "
  44. ^ Molotov's report of 31.10.1939 on foreign policy of the Government at the Extraordinary Fifth Session of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR
  45. ^ Go to: 1 2 Engle. Eh, Paananen. Soviet-Finnish war. Breakthrough of the Mannerheim Line. 1939-1940 / Trans. With the English. OA Fedyaeva-M .: ZAO Tsentrpoligraf. 2004. - 253 p. ISBN 5-9524-1467-2
  46. Anthony Anton. Soviet-Finnish Winter War / In: Soviet-Finnish War. ISBN 985-433-692-1
  47. ^ Peace Treaty between the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the Republic of Finland Article III, Moscow, March 12, 1940.
  48. Go to: 1 2 [Semyryaga MI Secrets of Stalin's Diplomacy 1939-1941 (inaccessible link from 23-05-2013 (1081 days) - history , copy ) - Moscow: Higher School., 1992.
  49. ^ Chronik 1940. Chronik Verlag. Dortmund 1989. ISBN 3-611-00075-2 .
  50. ^ Jump to: 1 2 Bobylev PN The point in the discussion is early. On the question of planning in the General Staff of the Red Army a possible war with Germany in 1940-1941. - Domestic history, 2000, No. 1, p. 46-64.
  51. ^ Melytukhov MI "Shouts of defense is a veil"
  52. ^ Halder F. Military Diary. Volume II. P. 80. "July 31, 1940" . - Moscow: Military Publishing, 1971.
  53. ^ Proposals of the OKW headquarters for the propaganda preparation of an attack on the Soviet Union. 05/08/1941. (Unreachable link from 23-05-2013 (1081 days) - history , copy )
  54. ^ RGVA, fund 37977, inventory 5, file 564
  55. ^ Bobylev PN Rehearsal of the catastrophe . - Military history magazine. No. 7, 8, 1993.
  56. Sokolov B. V. Unknown Zhukov: a portrait without retouches in the mirror of the era. - (Unknown Zhukov by BV Sokolov) - Mn .: Rodiola-plus, 2000-608 s ("The World in Wars"). ISBN 985-448-036-4
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  60. ^ Portal «Culture of Russia» Motherland is calling! Poster http://www.mincult.ru/formp.asp?id=313
  61. ^ Sella, Amnon. 'Barbarossa': Surprise Attack and Communication . Journal of Contemporary History, Volume 13 (3): 555. SAGE - Jan 1, 1978.
  62. From the memoirs of the People's Commissar of the Navy, N. G. Kuznetsov : "Later I learned that the People's Commissar for Defense and the chief of the General Staff were summoned to JV Stalin on June 21 about. Consequently, already at that time, under the weight of irrefutable evidence, a decision was made: to bring the troops to full combat readiness and, in case of an attack, to reflect it. So, all this happened about eleven hours before the actual invasion of the enemy on our land. "
  63. ^ Alan Axelrod. The Real History of the Cold War: A New Look at the Past . Sterling Publishing Company, Inc., 2009. С. 23.
  64. ^ Carl Gustav Mannerheim, memoirs. Http://militera.lib.ru/memo/other/mannerheim/11.html
  65. Herman Goth. Tank operations. Smolensk: Rusich, 1999. P. 153.
  66. ^ Mannerheim, Carl GustavMemories. Moscow: Vagrius Publishing House. ISBN 5-264-00049-2
  67. ^ Go to: 1 2 Chronik. Zweiter Weltkrieg. - Otus Verlag AG, 2007. - ISBN 978-3-907200-56-8
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  69. Boris Sokolov. Unknown Zhukov. Mn .: 2000. P. 358
  70. ^ ВОВ-60 - Operations .
  71. ^ Norman Longmate. The Bombers: The RAF Offensive against Germany 1939-1945. P. 309-312.
  72. Vsevolod Ovchinnikov, Hot Ashes: M., Pravda, 1986 (352 p.)
  73. ^ Go to: 1 2 Die Chronik des Zweiten Weltkrieges. Chronik Verlag, Auflage 1994. ISBN 3-86047-136-8
  74. Fest I. Adolf Hitler. In 3 volumes. Volume 2 / Translation AA Fedorov, NS Letneva, AM Andronov. - Perm: Aleteya, 1993. ISBN 5-87964-007-8 , ISBN 5-87964-005-1 /// Fest, J. Hitler. Eine Biografie. - Berlin: Propylaen, 1973. Adolf Hitler in the library of Maxim Moshkov
  75. ^ Brzezinski, Z. Another chance. Three presidents and the crisis of the American superpower / Trans. With the English. Yu. V. Firsova. - Moscow: International Relations, 2007.
  76. Andrei Nikolaevich Mertsalov, Lyudmila Andreevna Mertsalova. Other Zhukov: non-milestone pages of the biography of Stalin's marshal . 1996. P. 59.
  77. K. Rozhnov. West and the USSR: contribution to victory .
  78. ^ History of Russia. Ans. Ed., Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences, A. N. Sakharov. T.3. Ch. Ed. D-ist. Sciences VP Dmitrienko, M., 2000, p.464-465
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