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The history of the world economy - Polyak GB

12.2. feudal era of prosperity (XI - XV centuries the end.)

The feudal hierarchy. "Procedure shields"

By the end of XI - beginning of XII centuries. German village became a whole feudal. The population was divided into free and dependent or feudal serfs. Free, in turn, were divided into two limited caste groups: the free "noble" origin and the gentlemen at the free, but the "base persons sheffenskogo class."

The first group included the estate spiritual and secular princes, counts, knights, ie, large feudal landowners. The second group consisted of caste landowners free - Sheff, chinsheviki * landzassy (settlers), free from any country duties or pay the so-called free chinsh ** and the judicial and tax officials referred sheffenskogo class, as were the jurisdiction of the court sheffenskomu and pledged and allowed to perform the functions of jurors. Hence the name: Die Schoffen - jury.

* Chinshevik - free obrok holders in southwestern Germany in the XIII century.

** Chinsh - money, less natural, fixed annuity in favor of the lord.

The existing feudal hierarchy to the beginning of the XIII century in the previous period. I had officially adopted in the "order of boards." There were established seven military shields, indicate the rank (place), which include the person in the hierarchy of the feudal system. Holders of the first six boards used lennym law and have the right to own fief *.

* Len (feud) - private ownership of land, freely transferable and inheritable.

He headed the feudal ladder king (emperor), who was considered the suzerain, the owner of the supreme rights of great power, "the judge over the land and property of fief, and over the life of each." The direct vassals of the King is the prince - "immediate ranks of the empire," which had its vassals. King belonged to the shield of the first rank. Shield of the second rank belonged to the spiritual princes - bishops, abbots and Abbess, the third - the secular princes, if they became vassals of the bishops, a fourth - graphs, the fifth - the knights, the sixth - subvassalam knights. In the fifth grade, "Sachsenspiegel" * includes "persons who may be sheffenov". Seventh shield belonged to "free those born in marriage," and the right not to give lennogo. The shield was down one notch, if a feudal lord, as so often with the secular princes, became a vassal of an equal in rank person.

* "Sachsenspiegel" - a collection of German law. Composed in 1221-1225 gg.

Lena and fief right

Lena differ in rank and appointment. The county can be given not only land, but also the rank, office, collection of tithes, taxes, minting coins, etc. There were Lena imperial, church, court, city. Among the imperial and church included - "skipetronosnye" and "signs" Lena transmitted secular princes, officials, coinage and OE Along with fiefs in the possession of "noble" feudal lords, there was the category of "base county" - Lena village chiefs and even "peasant Lena", content that has been associated with certain obligations. However, Len acknowledged only that the lord received as a vassal. The feudal lord could give his serviceman person (ministerial) name, but such a deal, explains "Sachsenspiegel", was accomplished not by lennomu, and in demesne (rural) law, as is the transfer service.

Retained system in Germany has developed fully and became a state system of land relations in the XII century. In hereditary Lena became the county. Even many alloidalnye ownership of territorial princes and counts became fiefs. Preserved even in large territorial alloidalnye owners of land were incorporated (joined) in the fief system, retaining only its legal title of ownership. Feudal estates assumed the character of feudal system, formed a fief legislation.

Fief right to regulate the weight of the part of the relationship of owners and holders of fiefs, the organization of agricultural activities on the territories PARTICULAR, depending on the unit of social life. Be particularly careful to distinguish between the right fief, as in what time frame ought to get the owners and holders of the county.

Some weakening of serfdom

The middle of the XIII century. It was the time of a decisive turn for the better in the life of the German people, especially in the situation of the peasantry. Large masses of peasants received personal freedom, or in connection with the Crusades, or pay off the master. Some lords, going hiking, released their peasants to freedom; Hundreds of noble families vanished, and their farmers have achieved freedom. But the main reason for the weakening of serfdom to the level of simple dependence dictated by the necessity of development of virgin lands, and in the old ways of processing to increase feudal revenue could only be on the basis of an amicable agreement with their own peasants and came colonists. In the eastern part of Germany, in the occupied Labem for the Slavic lands, the German peasant settlers were freed from serfdom and payments for several years, enjoyed the benefits and privileges. Otherwise, it can not be held to the east manpower. In these circumstances, the feudal lords had to give liberty dependent farmers across northern Germany. In Saxony and the neighboring north-western regions from the XIII century. melkovotchinnoe created feudal economy, developed Maersk (Meyer - Manager) for rent.

Cities

Only a few cities in Germany were of Roman origin. The vast majority of German cities arose in the XI - XIII centuries.

In the XII century. in Germany there are hundreds of cities, and in XIII- XIV centuries. It appeared about 700 new cities. Middle considered a city with a population of 10-15 thousand, the largest -. 25 - 35 thousand, small -. 1 - 5 thousand.

Initially, the urban population were serfs, who escaped from their masters. They brought in the city beginning Markov system and ancient narodopravstva as City Chambers (burdiga). But the city was in the land of spiritual or secular lord, who exercised it justice, levied exactions demanded by citizens in a campaign appearance. Gradually the power of the lord suppressed public meetings.

Trading office in Augsburg

The townspeople fought for reduction of feudal levies, trade privileges, the right to the city government. This struggle of the townspeople held in the form of communal revolutions. Often, the city relied on the support of the emperors are interested in reducing seniors and understand the role and importance of the city as a source of financial and human resources. By the beginning of the XIV century. most cities had achieved independence from the seniors, but the power was in the hands of the urban aristocracy - big merchants, homeowners, lenders and landowners, the so-called ausbyurgerov. In the XV century. the apical layer of the city was called patricians.

guilds

The basis of life in the city was commodity production - and sale of craft products. Like everywhere else in feudal Europe, a form of organization of handicraft production was the shop. The first extant statutes German shops are XIV -. XV centuries, although guilds emerged much earlier, in the XI-XII centuries. two to four people, and believing masters were engaged in craft workshops. Exceptions were more numerous construction companies. Statutes regulate the relations of masters, journeymen and apprentices, the terms and conditions of apprenticeship; determined amount, volume and quality of its products, its appearance, packaging, etc. At the same time workshops performed mutual funds function, we care for widows and orphans, carrying security and fire service, defending the walls of his native city, were actively involved in religious life.

Print bakers shop

Many owners of shops and craftsmen were working on a master entrepreneur, supply them with raw materials and provides the sales of finished products. In the textile (wool weaving) and metal productions often to connect the work of rural artisans and other cities.

Thus, in the XIV-XV centuries. in the German cities were decentralized manufacture, although a master entrepreneur, at least at first, still actively involved in the production.

The documents show the ongoing differentiation of the city, including artisan population. There were rich and poor guilds, shops, enjoying respect and shops "despicable." Particularly unenviable position was many apprentices and students that make up 55 - 60% of the urban population. At the end of the XV century. 65% of the artisans of large cities paying taxes on the two lowest rates. At the same time, even in the middle XIV. less than 6% of urban taxpayers were subject of a property-tax income more than half of the total assessment of the property, indicating a high concentration of ownership.

In XIII-XV centuries. in many cities (. Cologne, Worms, Ulme, Hamburg and others) occurred guild uprising - craft revolution against the patricians. But only in rare cases (Cologne, 1396) shops managed to capture the magistrate. Sometimes guilds patricians forced to share power with the tip of the guild. The lower strata of the city (plebeian) often actively supported craft uprising, but never received the power and did not achieve the bread and law.

At the end of XIV - early XV century. there is the category of "eternal apprentice" - one of the components taking shape predproletariata. Defending his economic rights, have created apprentice secret fraternity, carried out strikes on the scale of the shop, the city or several cities. Podmasteriev whipped whipped, branded, jailed, mutilated. Masters used lockouts * "black list" system.

* The lockout (from English, to lock the door) - one of the forms of struggle against the employers of craftsmen, workers - closures in order to obtain the consent of the workers in the worst conditions.

Cities Alliance. Hanse

In the troubled era of the interregnum and the "law of the fist" to protect life and property created by the Cities Alliance. In 1254 arose Confederation of the Rhine cities (Mainz, Worms, Oppenheim et al.). Two years later he joined 100 cities and more than 30 of the princes, but the internal contradictions soon led to the disintegration of the union. He was reborn after almost one hundred years in spite of the "Golden Bull" *, which has banned the city to unite in unions, and in 1381 merged with arisen in 1376 Swabian League of Cities. Swabian-Confederation of the Rhine, created to deal with the tax in times of oppression, Charles IV, brought together more than 80 German and Swiss cities. Against integration of cities were jousting unions and support their princes headed by the emperor. In 1388 the Swabian-Confederation of the Rhine cities suffered a military defeat in Worms and collapsed.

* "Golden Bull" in 1356 - adopted by the Imperial Diet, was approved by the emperor Charles IV. To promote the political fragmentation of Germany.

Simultaneously with city unions in Southern Germany were formed unions to protect trade in Northern Germany. The structure of the union of northern cities included more than 90 urban communities. This was the famous Great German Hansa (the original meaning of the Gothic word "Hansa" - the crowd, later - an alliance of merchants abroad). The official name of the Hanseatic League - «Der gemeine deutsche Kauffmann», ie "Obschenemetskoe merchants."

Hanseatic printing Greifswald, received city status in 1250

The emergence of the union belongs to the XIII century., When a group of merchants from the North German cities have created the London Hansa, which was the leading city Cologne. The destruction of the German feudal independence Polabian and Pomeranian Slavs and Tatar-Mongol invasion destroyed the trade of Russian lands. ARISING gap and filled the great German Hanse, taking advantage of the weakening of the Slavic overseas trade. Organizational and political union registration took place in the middle of the XIV century. The structure consisted of Hansa cities located on the coasts of the North and Baltic Seas, and a number of cities on the rivers flowing into the sea. The power of the Hansa period it included some of the Dutch city. The core of the Hansa were Hamburg, Lübeck and Bremen. Hansa had offices in London, Bergen, Novgorod, Pskov, Polotsk and many other cities.

Trade Hansa was the intermediary: Slavic and Scandinavian countries in Western Europe exported agricultural raw materials, timber, furs, tar, salt. Hamburg's brutally exploited the Danish and Norwegian fishermen, herring supplying almost all of Europe. On the markets of the Scandinavian countries, Poland and Northern Russia was handicraft products of the West, oriental spices, grape wine, medicines. But Hansa was not only a trade union, it had the features and the state, waged war for the preservation and assertion of their trading rights and privileges. In particular, in 1369 Hanse in alliance with Sweden defeated the Danes, having received a number of locks on the coast, and the right of veto in the election of the Danish kings. However, due to the fragmentation of Germany at the Hansa was not a political or economic ties with the Swabian-Confederation of the Rhine cities.

The capital of the Hanseatic League was Lübeck. There were going to congresses - ganztagi \ decisions taken by majority vote, sealed Lübeck. The growth of economic and political power in England, Denmark, Sweden, the Russian state, partly in Poland rather quickly led to the decline of the Hanseatic League, and the economic consequences of the Great Geographical Discoveries, sharply weakened the value of Mediterranean trade and trade accordingly South German cities, finally killed Hansa. Last ganztag held in 1669 in Heir Hansa Baltic and severnomorskoy trade became Holland.

Having played an important role in the economic strengthening of Germany, German cities unions were not able to provide the city a leading role in the political life of the country.

Start the revolution in agrarian relations

Composed by the middle of the XIV century. flourishing trade and economic growth of cities made spiritual and temporal lords to seek new sources of money, which led to a new attack on the rights of the community, the brand was the beginning of revolution in agrarian relations, which will continue in the first decades of the XVI century. The subject of the primary concerns of the feudal lord was the struggle for getting the brand rights of priority use of community forest, forest and other pastures, and then complete their capture. The reason is simple and obvious: the cities of the developing areas of mining, shipbuilding, salt production and wine-needed construction materials and fuel; guild craftwork needed a fleece.

The Community is constantly concerned about the protection and restoration of community forests and forest pastures, grazing sets the standard. Typically, the "full right" to grazing should not exceed four * six goals, but sometimes 12 or even 24 goals. "Full rights" possessed rich peasants, "half" - the poor, "quarter-" - is not a member of the brand. The farmer could sell the right to the missing number of cattle. Mainly engaged in pig breeding farms. It is known that in 1437, only a relatively small forest Luskhart located between Bruchsal and Philippsburg (Baden-Vyurtemburg), grazing more than 43 thousand. Pigs. In the market town of Osnabrück Only in 1490 the peasants were herded at least 25 thous. Pigs.

Predatory deforestation, replacing oak and beech forests (acorns and nuts for pigs) coniferous forced farmers to abandon the pasture and go to a more labor-intensive stabling pigs in barns, replace the old semi-wild pigs breed a new breed of "snow-white". Pigs are now fed barley, bran cake. All this has undermined the prestige of the pig production, commodity production has decreased. Until the appearance in the XVIII century. new efficient feed - corn and potatoes - pig farming has ceased to be the leading sector of animal husbandry.

Along with the seizure of communal forests and forest pastures lords launched an offensive on the communal pastures for cattle. Before the XIII century. on communal pastures grazed one flock with a common shepherd, in the second half of the XIII century. lords won the right to a single shepherd. Over time, the peasants lost their ability and right to control the size of the master's herd, grazing on communal pastures, and feudal lords gradually appropriated to itself the right of all grazing livestock, mainly sheep, on sloping peasant allotments, as well as the right to freely run through flocks of feudal peasant holdings.

The right to build a sheepfold and on the allocation of pastures for sheep early on was the privilege of the territorial princes. Arranging your own sheepfold, they are more likely to sell and transfer this right to the land owners or the owners of the estates, and sometimes a separate rural communities. Sheep quickly acquired a commodity character. It is no coincidence spring sheep shearing called the first harvest of the year. Development of sheep farming required appearance-Ovcara tenant who actually became sharecroppers, the first representative of venture capital in the country. Share in the rented sector became his capital, by which profited shepherd. В погоне за прибылью феодалы и овчары нарушали прогонное право, сжигали и истребляли под пастбища хорошие леса, насильственно вторгались в крестьянские пастбища, вытесняли крестьян с пашни.

Наступление феодалов и овчаров-арендаторов на общинные пастбища в конечном счете привело к возникновению луговодства в подлинном смысле слова, включая всевозможные подготовительные и строительные работы и обводнение лугов, а также к распространению пастьбы по жнитве и внедрению четырехполья. Так как в Германии в XIV—XVI вв. еще не знали черного пара, то четвертое поле в течение 6—12 лет отдыхало и использовалось как пастбище. Алчность феодалов обусловила также вынужденный переход от пастбищного к стойлово-пастбищному выпасу скота. Так называемая пастбищная корова была вытеснена стойловой коровой, дававшей в два раза больше молока. Вошла в практику торговля сеном, которое продавали уже не возами, а в кубических измерениях. Богатые крестьяне вынуждены были покупать у своих односельчан навоз. Кстати, по величине кучи навоза судили о зажиточности крестьянина. Нередко с тех пор крестьянский двор назывался в документах просто «навозом».

Развитие городов обусловило в XIV—XVI вв. качественный рост огородничества и садоводства, приобретших товарный характер. Франкфурту-на-Майне, Аусбургу и Нюрнбергу принадлежала пальма первенства в выращивании цветов и цветочных семян для рынка.