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The history of the world economy - Polyak GB

21. The economy of Russia in the XVIII century.

Quite a difficult and controversial period in the Russian economic history was the XVIII century. In the first half of the century continued to dominate feudal system. Even quite large changes in the reform of the country's economy, not only did not weaken, but rather tightened serfdom. However, a significant increase in the productive forces, the formation of large industrial enterprises, and other factors in the reform of Peter I created the conditions for a fundamentally new processes in the economy.

Indeed, XVIII a. the century of the modernization of Russia. Since the era of Peter the Great, the country embarked on the path of transition from a traditional agrarian society to an industrial one. Modernization has affected all spheres of public life: politics and the economy, social life and ideology, law and culture. Intensified state intervention in the economy. Identify national priorities.

21.1. The era of Peter the Great

Background reform

At the end of the early XVII-XVIII centuries. Russia's economy has not had economic achievements of leading Western countries. Industrial production lagged behind. A few Russian factory in the vast majority used serf labor. Feudal relations stifled the development of agriculture and trade. Significantly inhibited the economic development of the country being landlocked. Available trade route through the White Sea was quite long and freezing for a long time. Control in the Baltic Sea has set Sweden. With such economic weakness and backwardness of certain military Russian in this period came into the sphere of interests of the colonial conquest of militant Western countries.

In order to overcome the danger of the loss of national independence and acquiring a decent exit from the humiliating state of military, economic and cultural backwardness of Russia needed the serious and urgent political and economic reforms: to strengthen state power and reorganize the public administration based on the experience of European countries, to form a powerful regular army and navy , to ensure a breakthrough in the development of the manufacturing production, enter into the world market system, etc.

Although the need for socio-economic and political changes, and overdue, but Russia, due to the specifics of its social system could not take such a drastic transformation in an evolutionary way. There was also irrelevant, and meaningless European revolutionary struggle of the medieval corporate bottom. Popular uprisings and unrest were carried out in the framework of the Eastern traditions and the sample, and therefore did not solve the problems of a new era. Required courage and determination from the top, a wide range of government reforms and a strong, tireless, in their own obsessed leader who can take on the implementation of the accumulated problems.

Peter I's reform efforts

Peter I, having high qualities of efficiency and rationality, passionately dreaming of prosperity of Russia, began a broad reform of almost all spheres of life and activity of the Russian society.

History has not preserved a clear plan, which possessed great transformer, starting the reforms. Yes, and it is unlikely that the plan could exist beforehand. However, the main directions of Russian modernization is clearly traced. According to Peter I, the gap in levels of economic development of the West, the backwardness of the trade and industrial sector and business were directly related to the level of science, education, secular culture. Yet, while remaining the unconditional supporter of the Western achievements, Peter I was guided by Russian specifics. His reforms were based not on the creative initiative of the company, the level of which the democratic system was low, and the state mechanism, state institutions, ie, Oriental, Asian style. As a result, there have been strengthening the central state power and the nationalization of a significant trade and economic activity.

Reform efforts are unlikely to know a lot of analogues. In fact, about three thousand laws Petrine era truly rocked the lives of the vast country. They were aimed at restructuring and polity, and economy, and culture, and lifestyle. Among them: the creation of a powerful regular army, navy and merchant marine, many factories, a new monetary system, forms of land tenure, etc. After obtaining access to the Baltic Sea as a result of the long Northern War with Sweden (1700-1721) and the return of previously owned Russian Baltic lands. isolation of Russia was eliminated. Giant increased its international authority and prestige. Intensified foreign trade position.

The restructuring of public administration

To carry out such large-scale problems in the Russian conditions required above all their political support - to strengthen and limit the centralization of public administration system, called an absolute monarchy. King, and since 1721, as a result of the Northern War, the emperor, had full, unfettered legislative, executive, judicial and spiritual authority.

Pedestal power of the monarch became a state-bureaucracy, entirely dependent on the emperor and obey him unquestioningly. Peter I even went to a violation of the tradition of succession, establishing in 1722 the Emperor's right to appoint the successor to the throne at its discretion. But to exercise that right, Peter I did not have time.

The structure of public administration held a series of successive transformations. First, the erstwhile Boyar Duma was the Middle Office of then - Governing Senate (1711). All nine members of the Senate appointed by the king in person, according to their merit. The Senate was in charge of the state budget, supervised the state apparatus, etc. The Senate itself was under the control of General Prosecutor and the Chief Prosecutor who are directly subordinate to the emperor.
Earlier, in effect orders were replaced by boards. They numbered 12 (1721). And each was assigned a specific scope of state activity. Thus, the camera-and the staff -kontor College were in charge, respectively, revenues and expenditures of the state. Berg-board - mining, metallurgy, Manufactures College - State-owned and some private factories, Commerce College - internal and external trade.

It should be noted that for the first time been established controls designed to promote the development of Industry and Commerce, management of the urban population, supporting the emerging bourgeoisie, strengthen the economic power of the nobility of the state, etc. In the military, foreign affairs, justice, board and other assigned the respective functions. After the abolition of the patriarchate in the Russian church management was entrusted to the Spiritual Board, converted to the Holy Synod of the government, headed by the chief prosecutor of the Synod. Of course, the board of improved governance, organization, increased the efficiency of the administrative apparatus. Contributed, however, only in the early stages, limiting the regime of personal power. Russian autocracy place XVII now. It took the bureaucratic-aristocratic monarchy of the XVIII century.

The country was subjected to the new administrative division. Now the head of each of the eight Russian provinces was governor, endowed with administrative, police, judicial and financial authorities. It should be noted that Peter I was not reckless supporter of democracy. Formed their landlord bureaucratic apparatus tried to keep it under control. In 1719 he divided the country into 11 provinces and 50 provinces. In turn, the province, led by governors, divided into counties. For the governors are now remained only a military and legal proceedings.

In 1722 it was approved by the Table of Ranks, legislate the reform efforts of Peter the Great and became a genuine set of laws on civil service. Now the service is the monarch who personified the state was actually a lifetime. It rewards from the Treasury, which also served as the manager of the emperor again. Report Card defined 14 ranking officials of civil, military and court service. At the same time officials reached the 1-8 th grades, became hereditary nobles and officials 9-14 th - could count only on personal nobility. The main thing was that there was a break with the patriarchal past. The nobles were instructed to start the service with the lowest grades. Gradual progress on the ladder of public service is now not dependent on the nobility or patronage, but on merit, skills and education.

A special place in the state policy of Peter I took the attitude of the army. At the beginning of the XVIII century. Sovereign has created a regular army and navy. Private composition was completed with the recruitment of representatives of peasants and townspeople. The officer corps was mainly represented by the nobility. Army service for all has been a lifetime. At the same time as the servitors officers and soldiers received salaries. It turned the army into a reliable support of absolutism, promoted its use not only in the direct reflection of external enemies, but also to suppress the popular uprising in the country.

The first Russian ship "Eagle"

Social policy and the situation of workers

The brunt of reforms of Peter falls on workers. The negative social attitude of the general population with respect to "foreign" alien to the Russian people, innovations, public pressure oppression, taxes rise, tightening operation, etc. escalating into numerous uprisings -. Astrakhan, Bulavin (1707-1709 under the leadership of the Cossack Ataman K.Bulavina), excitement musketeer units, etc. On the social protection of the disadvantaged (the elderly, widows, orphans) was sent to the activities of communities.

Under Peter I further developed the attachment of peasants to the land. New poll tax not only retained serfdom, but also to expand its membership by previously available ( "itinerant people") and slaves who had previously entitled to receive free after his master's death. In the category of state peasants is now translated Cossacks, archers, gunners, etc., previously legally equated to the service nobility. Experienced feudal oppression and state peasants. Not being officially fortress, they were subjected to forced displacement, a postscript to the plants, and so forth.

Landowner to harvest

Increased exploitation led to a significant exodus of people oppressed. By the mid-20s, their number reached more than 200 thousand. Peter I issued even a special decree (1724), which required the written permission of the landowner on the peasants care to work with a fixed term, which actually marked the beginning of registration of the passport regime in the country.

However, the social policy of Peter I affected not only the taxable portion of the population. In order to stabilize the political and economic ruling class king adopted a decree on the procedure of inheritance of movable and immovable property (1714). Legally, the merger was formalized two forms of feudal tenure: the estate patrimony and equalized in rights. Now, the estate also became inheritable. All secular lords were called nobles. However, to divide, to split the property was prohibited. The successor could be just one of the sons. Other sons were to arrive on military or civilian service. Later (1730) ban on splitting estates, nobles met quite hostile, was canceled.

The economic policy of Peter I

Such ambitious reforms and the long war with Turkey, Sweden, Persia require huge funds. For instance, if in the beginning XVIII. of total government spending on the army and navy was directed 38,5% (964 thousand. rub.) all funds, then in 1710 they accounted for 80% (3 mln. rub.) of total government spending. It required a huge mobilization of mind and working to seek the necessary sources of income. In 1704 the state "pribylschikov" was even formed. Their task was to find new sources of government revenue. It was conducted a wide search for the most effective reforms. An active supporter of the Petrine reforms and mercantilism Russian economist and publicist IT Pososhkov in the "Book of Poverty and Wealth" (1724) outlined the development of Russian industry and trade, stressed the role of Russia in the prosperity of its investigation of the richest mineral deposits, however, while maintaining the "legality" of serfdom.

In a number of important economic reforms, the great reformer not least we have our own economic policy of the state. Numerous decrees of Peter I mobilized efforts in various areas of economic life of the vast country. Thus, stimulation of geological surveys become a significant reward. Decree "Mountain freedom" decreed the right to exploit the mineral wealth of the discoverer, guaranteeing the owner of land only a small compensation. State aired as public enterprises the most skilful, honest and wealthy entrepreneurs. At their disposal they received the loan at a fairly favorable conditions, rich in minerals and forest land, bonded labor. Decree 1721 was allowed to buy the village factories and sell plants and people. This category of workers called possessional.

Russia, the rich and the glory always domestic craftsmen, do not neglect foreign experience. Widely known by Peter I practiced preparing their own national personnel abroad. For the transfer of experience and knowledge received an invitation to the Russian and foreign experts.

Broad support was given to domestic merchants. Patronizing Customs Tariff (1724) reflected the policy of mercantilism and protectionism encouraged the export of domestic goods and restricted the import of foreign goods that could compete with Russian products.

taxes

And still the main source of covering the enormous public expenditures remained taxes. Under Peter I, they have reached unprecedented dimensions. Their total number was adjusted to 30-40. This direct, indirect ordinary and extraordinary. Flour and trumpet, with bridges and ferries, with courts and shops, and ritual bath, was even on a beard tax and so forth. Indirect taxes provided 40% of the revenue of the treasury. In addition to the indirect taxes is widely practiced and direct taxes:. Conscription, dragoon, ship, etc. As one of the sources of replenishment of the budget was a monopoly on the minting of coins, even with a lower total weight of the silver contained therein.

Large infusions of the state budget gave the replacement of homestead taxation capitation tax-paying population, extraordinary efforts serfdom. From taxes has cleared the nobility and clergy. The population census in the 1719- 1724 biennium. revealed almost 5.5 million registered males male -. serfs and townspeople (merchants and artisans). For the first time taxpayers were also the servants (slaves), free (whores people), state peasants. Having grown almost fourfold state revenues owed half the collection is the poll tax.

monetary reform

The growth of commodity production, industry and trade development demanded the improvement of the monetary system. In 1700-1704 gg. coinage reform was carried out. It provided for the minting of gold, silver and copper coins. The basis of the reform was put decimal principle: the ruble, dime, penny. The main monetary units steel copper penny - for petty trade, silver ruble - for larger commercial transactions. The Russian ruble is to facilitate foreign trade by weight was equated with monetary unit of a number of European countries - thaler. Coinage was the monopoly of the state. On the export abroad of gold and silver by Peter I was banned. Implementation of this reform has provided the most advanced Russian monetary system, ahead of almost one hundred years of Western Europe.

Rubles in 1707 and 1721.

All these and other areas of social and economic policy of Peter I with its implementation given a certain economic effect not only in the first quarter, but in large part, and the first half of the XVIII century.