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History of the world economy - Polyak GB

21.2. The Economy of Russia in the Post-Petrine Period

Time of palace coups (second quarter of the XVIII century.)

The untimely death of Peter I, who did not leave the heir-successor of the great transformations, to a certain extent, slowed down the socio-economic development of the country. Successors of Peter I became a series of his little-known in the management of a huge country of relatives. Catherine I, Peter II, Anna Ioannovna, etc. Most of them came to power through endless intrigues and palace coups. They cared little about the prosperity of Russia, led a wasteful for the state budget lifestyle, ill-conceived domestic and foreign policy. In the end, this intensified serfdom, ruining the working people. Rampage favoritism weakened the country's economy. They not only abandoned the policy of patronage of Russian industry and trade, but often simply hampered their development. So, the manufacturers-nedvoryane basically lost the right to purchase souls. The customs tariff in 1731 replaced the protectionist nature of the previous tariff (1724), significantly softening the terms of import of foreign products, etc. The privileges and rights of the nobility grew. Their power over the dependent peasantry increased. Service nobleman was not life, but 25-year-old, etc. This was a time of foreign dominance and disregard for the interests of Russians. For example, the estimate of the costs of the court of Anna Ioannovna allocated 260,000 rubles for the maintenance of the royal court, 100,000 for her favorite Biron's stables, 42.5 thousand for the private personal needs of the empress, and slightly more than 47,000 for two Academies ., For public education - only 4,5 thousand rubles.

The daughter of Peter the Great, Empress Elizabeth Petrovna , although she strove to continue her father's economic policy, did this not always consistently and effectively.

Industrial policy and the development of the manufactory

Starting from the first quarter of the XVIII century, the main direction of domestic economic development was industry as the main source of the country's wealth. It was here under Peter I that the most significant changes occurred. And while still satisfying the basic needs for products of mass demand was carried through urban and rural crafts, as well as domestic crafts, small-scale commodity production began to play an increasing role. Its largest centers were formed in the textile industry (Moscow, Vladimir, Kostroma gubernias), metallurgy (Novgorod governorate, Tula-Serpukhov, Nizhny Novgorod, Yaroslavl and other districts) industry, in metal processing (Moscow, Novgorod, Pskov), in tanning (Yaroslavl, Kazan , Kostroma, Cheboksary), woodworking, brick, flour milling and other industries . Gradually, this type of production began to grow into a cooperative or into a manufactory. The shops founded by Peter I (1722), unlike the European ones, did not play a decisive role in the development of Russian manufactory production. They could not protect against competition, they did not regulate production and marketing. Many artisans generally worked outside the shops.

And yet the most important result of the reforms of Peter I was the creation in a short period of numerous manufactories. Their nature was distinctive and sometimes contradictory reflecting the nature of the labor employed. First of all, the absence in Russia of still significant capital has led to the construction of manufactories on a public account. Therefore, these enterprises served mainly state and, above all, military needs. It affects their quantitative growth. If at the end of the XVII century. Manufacturers in Russia were no more than 20, then by 1725 their number exceeded 200. Of these, 69 - in ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, 18 - sawmills, 17 - powder, 15 - cloth, among others - tanneries, glass, paper and Other

At this stage, the state played a decisive role in the formation of domestic industry. Thus, Peter I supported and encouraged a special ore order (1700), and from 1719 the mining and metallurgical industry was given the responsibility of the Berg-Collegium. The state not only built many factories, but also helped entrepreneurs with materials, money, labor. The government of Peter I, in order to attract the wealthiest merchants, nobles and landowners to industrial entrepreneurship and the construction of the national fleet, created companies. At their disposal were loans and all sorts of benefits were provided. Later, state-owned manufactories often gratuitously entered the hands of reputable and experienced entrepreneurs, especially from among merchants, less often nobles or peasants. By 1725, more than half (57%) of the total number of manufactories had been transferred to private owners.

Russia was famous for its masters and craftsmen. The introduction of advanced technology into the large-scale industry and the improvement of the quality of the products produced were rewarded and rewarded in every possible way. Control over the study and implementation of world technical experience was entrusted to the Manufactory-College.

The geography of Russian industrial production expanded. Along with the growth of metallurgy in the center of the country (Tula, Kaluga, Kashira), Karelia (Olonets Plant), in St. Petersburg (Sestroretsk Plant), the largest metallurgical center in the Urals has become of European importance. (Ekaterinburg, Nizhne-Tagil, Nevyansky and other plants).

In addition to 11 large state- owned factories, private enterprises belonging to the former Tula master Nikita Demidov and others also worked here. In the Urals, 2/3 of the total volume of pig iron and 9/10 copper were smelted. In terms of iron production, Russia made a giant leap: from 0.8 million poods in 1718 to almost 5 million poods in 1767, outperforming England and Sweden-leaders in the field of metallurgy at that time.

The military arsenal was supplemented by state manufactories that made gunpowder, ropes, canvas, etc. The textile and leather enterprises - the Moscow cloth yard, the manufactories in Yaroslavl, Voronezh, Kazan, etc. - also worked for the army.

Peter I - the creator of the domestic fleet. Shipbuilding yards were built in St. Petersburg, Voronezh and Arkhangelsk.

In both capitals, new industries were formed : paper and silk spinning, earthenware and glass production, etc.

The economic nature of Russian manufactories

At the heart of the promotion of manufactory production was the inviolability of serfdom. Both state-owned and private factories, especially mountain plants, were provided with forced laborers. Practice "attribution" of peasants to entire villages and even volosts. Only the most skilled workers, as a rule, were hired.

The production sphere was supplemented by a considerable number of patrimonial manufactories, where the peasant serfs worked on corvee processing, processing agricultural raw materials produced in the estate itself.

So, in terms of its economic nature and the nature of the labor employed, the Russian manufactories of the eighteenth century Were serfs, mixed or capitalist. At state manufactories, the work of state (black-sued) or peasant farmers was used, on patrimonial - serfs. By the second half of the century merchants, as well as peasant manufactories, began to attract the labor of hired workers.

Transport. Trade

The development of production, the expansion of domestic and foreign trade was significantly hampered by the poor development of communication routes and means of transport. The spring and autumn mudslides made many land roads inaccessible, connecting the regions of the country and intersecting in Moscow. The state saw a way out of this situation in the construction of canals. Thus, the Vyshnevolotsky Canal (1703-1708) connected the Volga with the Baltic Sea. The Bypass Ladoga Canal (1732) passed the Urals iron to the Volga, and then to Petersburg or Moscow. True, in quantitative terms, the Russian merchant fleet has lagged far behind the military.

Industrial and craft production, improvement of communication routes, access to the Baltic Sea stimulated domestic and foreign trade. In 1711, Peter I permitted everyone and everywhere to trade in any goods, having paid duties.

Deepening the process of forming a single all-Russian market was facilitated by the strengthening of economic specialization and trade exchange between individual regions of the country. Honored fame enjoyed Russian fairs. An important role in trade, including domestic, played Moscow, Nizhny Novgorod, Kazan, Samara, Penza, and others.

In order to increase the share of domestic trade in state revenues, a monopoly on the sale of a number of goods ( expensive wines, vodka, tobacco, salt, tar, caviar, luxury goods, etc.) was declared. In addition, the form of buybacks was used: the merchant-farmer got the right to sell mostly monopolized goods, as well as profits from fishing, haymaking, bridges, mills, etc. While buying out the prices, the farmer ensured certain accumulations of capital for further expansion of his Trade and business activities.

Particular attention of Peter I was directed to the development of foreign trade. Widely emphasizing the glory of the Russian merchant class and strengthening its position, Peter I, as already noted, actually created the Russian merchant fleet, and the customs tariff adopted in 1724 reflected the policy of mercantilism and protectionism. Thus, the desire was made to achieve an active trade balance and the patronage of domestic industry, protecting it from the competition of foreign manufactories.

Export of domestic products was encouraged, and imports of foreign goods were limited. Duties on foreign goods were collected only by gold and silver. They were so large that they were sometimes up to 3/4 of the cost of products, the production of which was established in Russia (canvas, iron, wax, etc.), as well as some luxury goods. At the same time, 25% of the duties were imposed on the goods that Russia needed. Import duties have also been differentiated, for example, 75% of duties were levied on unskilled leather, and only 6% were levied on those issued.

Such a policy not only contributed to the expansion of domestic production, but also led to the accumulation of commercial capital and the further growth of the capitalist order. At the same time, the state often quite harshly interfered in the trade sphere. So, carrying out administrative management of cargo transportation, it prevented the formation of market relations.

It should be noted that the new capital - St. Petersburg has become not only a major industrial and cultural center of the state, but also the focus of the main foreign trade relations. If at the beginning of the century through it was exported to 1/3 of Russian goods, then by 1726 - almost 2/3 of exported products. Here a year passed to a thousand ships. His work was supplemented by Riga, Tallinn, Vyborg, Arkhangelsk. Meanwhile, the port of Arkhangelsk, freezing for a long time, less convenient and distant, did not enjoy privileges and lower duties and gradually lost its former importance.

In general, an active balance in foreign trade was achieved. Thus, the export of Russian goods to European countries was twice as high as imports. Flax, hemp, leather, canvas, lard, iron, sail cloth, etc. were exported, woolen fabrics, expensive wines, luxury goods, raw silk, silk yarns were imported.

Agriculture

As before, agriculture remained the main sphere of economic activity in the country. The overwhelming majority of the population was concentrated here (about 95%). Petrovsky reforms of the agrarian sector of the Russian economy were affected little, since they did not touch upon the foundations of serfdom. The government implemented a number of measures to introduce new types of crops (tobacco, silkworms, medicinal plants, etc.).

However, extensive methods of farming continued to prevail at the expense of expansion of agricultural lands both in adjacent regions of Russia, and in the Volga and Siberia. Trehpolye dominated. Practical slash farming system in the northern and forest areas, in the south - perelog. The traditional tools of labor remained a plow, a harrow, a sickle. The prevalent gray bread - rye and oats. They were supplemented with barley, wheat, peas, millet, flax, hemp. Yields of basic grain-forage crops were low. For the Non-Black Earth region it is 2-3, for Chernozem - 5-6 itself. Cattle breeding was developing.

Peasant farms were unable to overcome routine and poverty. Extremely difficult and burdensome for them were numerous duties, taxes, recruitment kits, etc. There was a month - the peasants were deprived of their allotment, since they were constantly busy at the corvee and received monthly food supplies from the landowner. Heavy living conditions intensified the flight of peasants to the outskirts and anti-feudal unrest.