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History of the world economy - Polyak GB

Domestic trade

Economic recovery and economic policy of the second half of the XVIII century. Contributed significantly to the expansion of Russian trade both on the domestic and foreign markets.

The All-Russian market has developed. In the early 50's. Internal customs barriers were lifted, and the additional border duty on foreign trade turnover was 13% of the price of the goods. Domestic trade as a whole corresponded to the feudal character of economic development. Fair trade forms predominated. Affected by the lack of railways, broad credit, etc. At the same time, fair trade was increasingly improved, acquiring a permanent (shop), and not seasonal. The role of major fairs strengthened : Makarievskaya (near Nizhny Novgorod), Svensk (near Bryansk), Irbit (in the Urals), Krolevetskaya (Poland). By the 1970s, there were more than 1,500 trade fairs and trade villages in the country. At the same time, the state retained a monopoly on the trade in wine, salt, tobacco, tar, tar, caviar, etc.

The Russian merchants were granted certain privileges and privileges. Out of the merchant's milieu came the big manufacturers and breeders. The merchant class was exempt from poll tax and was subject to a guild duty of 1% of the declared capital. The recruit's service was replaced by a payment of 500 rubles. For every recruit. Privileges also affected the nobility. In the early 50-ies they received an exclusive right to distilling, and in the early 60's - free sale of bread abroad.

In the mid-sixties, a wine purchase system was introduced, which consisted in the fact that a private entrepreneur repurchased from the state a monopoly on the trade in wine first in a certain territory, and then everywhere. During the following years, wine purchase became one of the main sources of revenue of the state budget.

The trading rules of this period are peculiar. Thus, the Customs Charter (1755) allowed domestic merchants to trade duty-free within the country, only wholesale trade was allowed to foreigners. For the nobility, any trade was allowed, without restriction, and for rural traders - no closer than five versts (a verst is equal to 1.1 km) to the city. In the mid-70s freedom of trade and industry was proclaimed. In accordance with the "Charter of the city" (1785), a property qualification was established for enrolling in the category of merchants. The size of capital determined the gradation of merchants to the guild. Thus, the merchants of the first guild, who had 10 thousandths of capital, were given the right to trade at fairs, in cities and ports, and also invest in industry.

The focus of the main trade routes remained Moscow. Agricultural products came from Ukraine, furs came from Siberia, bread, wool, leather, fish from the Pskov, Novgorod, Smolensk provinces - flax, from Kaluga - hemp, hempseed oil, from the Central Gubernias - canvases, fabrics, dishes , Iron and articles thereof, from the Urals - iron, salt, etc.

International trade

The output of the Black Sea in the second half of the 18th century allowed the expansion of external export-import operations through Odessa, Taganrog, Sevastopol, etc. During this period, the foreign trade turnover grew almost eight times (from 14 million to 110 million rubles).

The trade policy of the Russian government was generally mercantilistic in nature. The main source of enrichment was the excess of exports over imports, i.e. Achievement of an active balance of foreign trade. Such a policy was characteristic of most European countries. Its implementation entailed the introduction of protectionist tariffs (1757, 1766, 1782, 1799), which protected domestic production from foreign competition. Duties on the goods which made a competition domestic (charges from iron, a cloth, a paper, etc.) have grown. At the same time, customs fees were reduced from imported raw materials, important for the development of domestic industry (cotton, raw sugar, etc.).

Although the agricultural products (hemp, flax, leather, lard, furs, wood, tar, potash) were still predominant in exports, the proportion of industrial products increased more and more. In particular, the export of iron only in the 1960s-1980s increased almost fivefold. The main trading partner was England, which absorbed a large part of the canvas, ropes, timber, resin, iron, etc. exported from Russia. Lively trade was also maintained with Holland, Denmark, France, Portugal, Italy, and Spain. To the East, iron products, linen, hemp fabrics, cloth, leather, paper, dishes, etc. were exported from Russia. Russia imported dyes, luxury goods (expensive fabrics, wines, coffee, etc.) from Europe, tea, silk and cotton fabrics - From China, cattle, cotton fabrics, lambskin, apricot - from Central Asia and so on.

The state budget

Despite all the positive dynamics of economic development, the state budget was complicated by numerous wars, the growing state apparatus, unprecedented favoritism, wastefulness and irrationality of the expenditure of the royal court.

Thus, during the reign of Catherine II as a whole, the expenditure part of the budget increased more than 4.5 times (from 17 million to 78 million rubles). The structure of expenses was as follows: 88% were absorbed by the army and the state apparatus, 11% by the maintenance of the court, and only slightly more than 1% by education, health care, and charity.

The revenue part of the budget was also constructed in a peculiar way: more than a third came in as a poll tax, 40% were indirect taxes and fishing fees. Among them was a drinking tax, which was 28% of budget revenues. The system of buybacks was one of the sources of the initial accumulation of capital in Russia and accounted for the enormous fortunes of the Stroganovs, Shuvalovs, Kokorevs, Zlobinovs, and others. A considerable role was played by the use of natural duties and the involvement of state peasants in various types of work (transportation, construction of canals, roads, bridges, etc. .).

At the same time, the state budget deficit was 200 million rubles. Public debt was also one of the sources of the initial accumulation of capital in Russia. As a replenishment of the treasury in Russia, the first issue of banknotes (1769) was used. Catherine II calculated the balance of the banknotes issued and cash. However, as early as 1786, the issue of banknotes increased so much that the rate of banknotes dropped sharply and silver disappeared from circulation. By the end of the XVIII century. Ruble banknotes equaled to 68 kopecks of silver. The difference between them was actually an internal loan.

Other measures to cover the deficit included an increase in taxation, the burden of which fell on the working masses. The clergy and the nobility were exempted from paying taxes, which was a clear reflection of the nature of the noble state. But already in 1718 peasants of all categories and petty bourgeois were subject to per capita tax. The unit of taxation since then has become a revision soul instead of a court . Direct taxes accounted for about half of the revenue side of the budget. For the 60-90-ies the total volume of poll tax increased by 4.5 times.

The government also went on foreign loans. The first foreign creditors were Dutch and Genoese bankers (1769). By the end of the century, the amount of external loans accounted for more than half of the country's public debt and amounted to over 40 million rubles. Only for the payment of interest on debt took up to 5% of the budget.

The first banks

In the XVIII century. The establishment of Russian banks began. Unlike the West European, created by rich merchants, usurers, in Russia, banks were established by the government, the state.

To maintain the nobility in the era of the crisis of feudal serfdom in the mid-50's. Under the Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, the first Russian bank, the State Loan Bank, was established. He included two offices - the Noble and the Merchant Bank.

The conditions of the Noble Bank were the issuance of loans at 6% per annum for three years, against land and peasant souls. Often these conditions were not met by the landlords. Established in place of them in 1786, the new State Loan Bank extended the repayment period of loans by 20 years. However, almost all the loans received were not directed at improving the economy, but on the spending of the nobility. Undoubtedly, the lodging form of lending hindered the progressive economic development of the country and ruined the masses.

In turn, in order to enhance the role of the Russian merchants in financing foreign trade operations largely controlled by foreign capital, the Kupechesky Bank carried out its activities . However, its role in strengthening commercial and industrial capital has been rather modest. The bank's capital did not exceed 500 thousand rubles, and, in addition, was partially transferred to the Noble Bank. In addition, loans were provided for a short period of time - up to six months. Without justifying the expectations, this bank was closed (1786). In 1786 Catherine II organized the State bank of letters for issuing bank notes.

State bank of letters in St. Petersburg

The system of credit institutions in the early 1970s was supplemented by loan and safe cash offices ( treasuries ) for obtaining a small loan. Along with the bank credit, the industrial and commercial bourgeoisie also used commercial channels, attracting loans from usurers and bankers. In general, Russian banks of this period actually diverted huge funds from production use, contributing little to the country's economic progress.

Questions for repetition

1. Uncover the main idea and content of the reforms of Peter I.

2. Describe the changes in the development and placement of productive forces, the structure and organization of production, which occurred in Russia in the first half of the XVIII century.

3. List the indicators that characterize the process of the decomposition of the feudal serf economy and the emergence of the capitalist way of life in Russia in the second half of the 18th century.

4. Compare the economic policies of Peter I and Catherine I.