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History of the world economy - Polyak GB

The second group of developing states

This group includes 33 states whose income per capita in 1978 exceeded $ 415: the countries of South-West, South and South-East Asia (India, Pakistan, Iran, Syria, Iraq, Lebanon, etc.).

Following the collapse of the colonial system, the problem of gaining economic independence faced the developing countries in full.

After decades of struggle against British colonial rule, India gained independence in August 1948. In the territory of the former British colony, two states were formed - the Indian Union and Pakistan.

In 1949, the Constituent Assembly of India adopted a new constitution. Parliamentary elections brought the victory of the party to the Indian National Congress. The first government was led by Jawaharlal Nehru, then by his daughter Indira Gandhi and grandson of Rajiv Gandhi. In total, they headed the government for almost 39 years. A course was taken to create a mixed economy. The public sector and planning were given an important role in the development of the country while maintaining the private sector.

Agrarian reforms were the main focus. The institution of mediators, zamindars, established in the last century was liquidated. Landlord tenure was limited. The state provided support to peasant farms, limited usury, cooperatives began to develop, and advanced agro-technical methods were introduced. However, the plans for the modernization of India are adversely affected by high rates of population growth, national-religious strife, the caste problem. Nevertheless , the green revolution allowed it to abandon the import of food grain in the 1970s. The industrial potential was created.

A symbol of India's success in this regard is the launch in 1980 of its own communication satellite on an Indian rocket carrier. In the 1980s, India, following the example of the newly industrialized countries, began market reforms, from the import-substituting industry to the development of export industries of the extractive industry. The state's policy is to encourage the public sector in basic industries, private enterprise, attracting foreign capital to transnational corporations in the progressive branches of production. But nevertheless, it was not possible to reach the planned economic milestones. For example, during the period of the Seventh Five-Year Plan (1985-1990), the average annual growth rate was 3.5% against 5% of the planned.

Pakistan, like India, has followed the eurocapitalist path, although the problems of democratization in the country were much more difficult to solve (not the least role in this was the complete Islamization). As in India, mediation in land relations was abolished, the foundations of the public sector, the support of private entrepreneurship and foreign investments were created in industry. Despite the measures taken, the country's budget deficit is increasing, the balance of payments is becoming more acute. Vulnerable to unsustainable weather conditions is still agriculture - the main branch of the economy, which provides almost 80% of the employment of the population. Growth in inflation, dependence on the external market conjuncture of the country's main export products.

Although sovereignty in Iran was restored in 1946, only in the 60s and 70s reforms were carried out to accelerate the country's capitalist development and to modernize at a rapid pace. The most important reform was the agrarian reform carried out in the 1960s. Its goals were the elimination of land hunger, the restriction of large landed property, the creation of farm-capitalist farms by buying out the treasury of significant land holdings and distributing them to the peasants with the condition of repayment by installments. However, the rate on the development of capitalism in the village turned out to be premature.

The policy of modernization, carried out by Shah Mohammed Reza Pahlavi, was called the White Revolution. It included reforms in agriculture, industry, education and health. The implementation of industrialization led to an increase in the rate of industrial production to 10-15% per year. But the liquidation of the landlord's commodity farms led to a fall in agricultural production, mass unemployment. The expression of discontent was the Muslim clergy, who opposed reforms from the very beginning. In 1979, Shiite leader Khomeini returned to Iran after years of exile, the Shah left the country. In the country, the Islamic revolution won. Iran was declared an Islamic republic and returned to the norms of the Sharia.

Despite the death of Imam Khomeini, Iran remains an Islamic republic.

Decolonization in Africa covers almost all post-war years. First, the independence of the Arab countries of North Africa. Their development took many different paths. If Morocco and Tunisia steadfastly adhered to the course of pro-Western orientation and the course for modernizing the country in line with the market economy, then Algeria and Libya tried to build Arab socialism.

A special place in the Arab anti-colonial movement belongs to Syria. De jure Syria was proclaimed independent of France in 1941, and de facto became in 1946 after the withdrawal of French troops.

Among the Arab countries, Syria occupies only the sixth place in terms of population and the tenth largest territory. But in recent decades, it has invariably stood in the forefront of the Arab world. Syria is a member of the League of Arab States of the Organization of the Islamic Conference of the Non-Aligned Movement.

The development of Syria, its internal and foreign policy over the past 50 years, is connected with the activities of the Arab Socialist Revival Party (APSV), established in 1947. In 1963-1965, Social and economic reforms were carried out in the country: the nationalization of banks and insurance societies, the adoption of a new law on agrarian reform, which significantly curtailed the maximum of land holdings, all large and part of medium-sized industrial enterprises were taken under state control. The state sector of the economy gradually began to occupy leading positions in production, credit and finance and foreign trade. All the country's natural resources and the property of financial companies (foreign and local) engaged in their development have been nationalized. Syria became the first Arab state to take control of oil wealth.

In 1966, in Syria, won the "Movement on February 23", leading to leadership in the country left the revolutionary-democratic forces. One of the acts of the new government was the requirement for a foreign oil consortium, the Iraq Petroleum Company, to increase payments for transporting Iraqi oil to the Mediterranean via Syria, which was granted. The situation in the country was affected by the Six Day War of Israel in 1967 during which the Arabs were defeated. Israel annexed significant territories of neighboring countries of Egypt, Syria and Jordan *.

* For more details, see: E. Primakov. Anatomy of the Middle East conflict. - M., 1978.

Since 1971, Hafez Assad has become the president of Syria, with the name of which the new stage of social and economic reforms is associated. The country has created a highly developed textile, food, oil industry, construction industry, created new industries (chemical, mining, cement, machine-assembly, etc.).

Accelerated industrial development of the country began during the fourth five-year plan (1976-1980), which attached great importance to industrialization. Over five years the country has built more than one hundred industrial facilities. By 1985, the share of industry in GNP increased to 30%. Industrial output from the total volume of goods intended for export amounted to 33%. The industrial working class has grown.

Significantly strengthened the economy of the republic and during the implementation of the Fifth Five-Year Plan (1981-1985). The public sector of the economy developed rapidly. He accounted for over 80% of industrial production and about 90% of all exports and imports. The average annual growth rate of GNP was in 1979-1984. More than 7%. Particular success was achieved by the construction public sector, new railways and highways, hundreds of bridges * were introduced.

* See: O. Volgin. Damascus Bulat, Syria: 25 years on the path of revolution. - Moscow: International relations. - 1988. - P. 36-37.

One of the main branches of the Syrian economy is agriculture, whose share in GNP is about 20%. An important feature of agrarian transformations in the republic has also been the organization of agricultural cooperatives. In 1987, there were 4156 cooperatives in Syria, most of which were supply and marketing, in most cases they did not justify themselves and were subsequently closed.

Since 1957, when the first economic agreement between the USSR and Syria was signed, Soviet organizations assisted in the development of the leading branches of the Syrian economy. The most important objects of Soviet-Syrian cooperation in the field of electric power industry were the Efrat hydroelectric dam - the dam "Al-Baas" with hydroelectric power plants. In 1987, a joint Soviet-Syrian space flight took place aboard the Soyuz TM-3 spacecraft.

However, in recent years the country's economic situation has deteriorated. Stagnation is noted in the production of a number of types of industrial and agricultural products. One of the main reasons for the difficulties is the development of inflationary processes, the reduction of aid from the oil-exporting Arab states and Russia, which can not be such an important partner for it as the USSR was.

Thus, the countries in this group have sufficient opportunities for economic growth, but their implementation is complicated by acute structural imbalances.

The third group of developing countries

This group includes countries in which GDP per capita is less than $ 350, the literacy rate of the population is less than 20%, and the share of manufacturing is less than 10%. Of the four dozen countries that are underdeveloped, 25 are located on the African continent.

This group includes the states of Central and South Africa (dozens of heterogeneous and unclearly formed states, military tribal entities). Most of the states of Tropical Africa (immediately 17) gained independence in 1960, called the year of Africa.

Angola, Mozambique, Guinea Bissau gained independence as a result of the liberation movement against Portugal in 1974. Namibia gained its last independence in 1989. Africa is the most backward region in the world economics. The backwardness is exacerbated by a number of factors, including a very high population growth, political instability, ethnic, interstate conflicts, tribalism (from the Latin tribus - tribe), ie, adherence to clan-tribal isolation.

In the countries of tropical Africa, there is a multifaceted economy. Small- commodity way of life is predominant. By the time these countries gained their independence, most of the population was concentrated in traditional agricultural or raw materials. When the new leaders of these countries tried to destroy these structures, seeking "full independence", they lost the only stable source of income. During the period of independent development, the economic dependence of many African states on the developed capitalist countries did not decrease, but increased. Almost all African countries are characterized by foreign capitalist entrepreneurship, represented mainly by subsidiaries of TNCs from developed countries - former metropolises, especially England and France. Thus, in most of the former French colonies of the Central African Republic, French capital accounts for 58-70% of all foreign investment. Only for 1980-1986 years. Foreign monopolies exported from Africa in the form of net profits of $ 24.9 billion.

Agriculture is the least dynamic branch of the economy in most African countries, which is explained by the technical and economic backwardness of the sector, low labor productivity, and deteriorated natural and climatic conditions in the countries adjacent to the Sahara (the Sahel).

Food production chronically lags behind population growth, and if it were not for the help of international organizations, a large part of Tropical Africa would be a zone of hunger. In accordance with world classifications, the one who receives less than $ 275 a year is considered to be poor . In 1990, there were 20 countries with a lower income level.

The problem of international debt of developing countries

Developing countries began the process of independent economic development unencumbered by a large external debt (in 1950, $ 2 billion). Until the 1970s, these countries mainly attracted funds from official sources, including irrevocable subsidies. Therefore, their foreign debt grew slowly and increased in 1950-1970. On 64 billion dollars. However in 1970-1980. The debt increased by almost 700 billion dollars, as many developing countries entered the world market of loan capitals.

Since the main criterion in the distribution of official development assistance (ODA) is the level of economic development of the recipient country, the highest per capita funds are received in sub-Saharan Africa. They account for about 1/10 of the population of developing countries and about 1/3 of total ODA. However, for example, Israel receives 1/20 of concessional loans and subsidies, although its population is only 0.1 of the population of developing countries. This shows that the criteria for allocating ODA to recipient countries depend not only on economic but also on political factors.

In the context of the debt crisis, various methods of partial debt write-off, and increased payments for its repayment, the growth of external debt has slowed somewhat, although, according to the accounts of the debtors of the World Bank (107 countries ), the external debt of developing countries in 1975-1992, Increased from 250 billion dollars to 1.4 trillion. Respectively, including Asia - 539.3 billion dollars, Latin America - 477.8 billion dollars, Africa - 288.4 billion dollars. The highest level of debt in the countries of Asia is due to the wide access of the countries of the region to credit. A small number of developing countries have managed to overcome the debt crisis, and for the majority it remains an acute problem. In the 1990s, Brazil was the largest debtor (over $ 100 billion). Somewhat behind Mexico is Mexico. The external debt of India, Indonesia, Argentina - from 50 to 60 billion dollars, followed by Nigeria, the Philippines, Venezuela (30 billion dollars each).